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BEGINNERS    IN    BOTANY 


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LABORATORY    PRACTICE 


BEGINNERS  IN   BOTANY 


BY 

WILLIAM   A.   SETCHELL,   PH.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  BOTANY  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

LONDON :  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LTD. 
1900 

All  rights  resided 


LIBRARY 
G 


COPYRIGHT,  1897, 
By  THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped  March,  1897.      Reprinted  May, 
December,  1897;  August,  1899;  July,  1900. 


Nortoooli  3P«8B 

J.  S.  Cmhing  &  Co.  -  Berwick  &  Smith 
Norwood  Mass.  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

THE  writer  has  been  frequently  asked  to  express  to  others 
his  ideas  on  the  subject  of  the  teaching  of  botany  in  the 
schools.  He  has  been  led  to  consider  the  problem  from  a 
number  of  different  points  of  view  and  to  try  a  number 
of  different  methods  in  attempting  a  satisfactory  solution. 
After  experimenting  with  a  number  of  classes  of  beginners 
both  in  the  preparatory  schools  and  in  the  university,  he  has 
arrived  at  the  following  conclusions  :  — 

Botany  in  the  preparatory  schools  should  be  taught  — 

1.  As  a  science,  to  cultivate  careful  and  accurate  observa- 
tion, together  with  the  faculty  of  making  from  observations 
the  proper  inferences  ;  and 

2.  As  a  means  of  leading  the  mind  of  the  student  to  inter- 
est itself  in  the  phenomena  of  nature  for  its  own  further 
development  and  profit. 

In  order  to  make  the  study  of  botany  more  effective  under 
the  first  head,  it  seems  best  to  bring  the  student  into  imme- 
diate contact  with  the  object  itself,  in  the  laboratory  ;  and 
not  only  that,  but  to  avoid  interposing  apparatus,  as  far  as 
possible,  between  the  student  and  the  object  to  be  studied. 


•    ^f   '.,, 


PREFACE 


For  this  purpose,  the  writer  has  practically  confined  his 
attention  to  the  larger  plants. 

Desiring  also  to  cultivate,  as  far  as  possible,  the  ability  to 
draw  correct  inferences  from  exact  observations,  the  writer 
has  deemed  it  best  to  consider  the  subject  from  a  somewhat 
different  point  of  view  from  that  usually  adopted,  and  has 
attempted  to  make  the  morphological  study  bear  fruit 
in  this  direction.  The  great  difficulty  in  most  laboratory 
work  is  to  make  the  students  realize  the  significance  of 
the  morphological  details.  They  may  observe  accurately 
and  record  their  observations  carefully,  but  what  of  that? 
The  physiological  significance  is  overlooked  —  even  in  many 
cases  where  experiments  are  used  to  illustrate  physiological 
phenomena. 

That  the  plant  is  a  living  thing,  is  a  fact  that  must  be 
borne  actively  in  mind,  both  by  teacher  and  by  student. 
The  plant  must  obtain  the  materials  for  its  support,  and  to 
do  this  it  must  compete  with  other  plants ;  it  must  protect 
itself  against  or  seek  the  aid  of  animals ;  it  must  obtain  the 
energy  and  materials  to  reproduce  its  kind,  and  endeavor  to 
place  its  offspring  where  they  may  have  a  proper  chance  for 
development ;  and,  destitute  of  a  mind  as  it  is,  it  exercises 
an  ingenuity,  so  to  speak,  that  is  of  no  mean  order.  We 
must,  then,  think  of  the  plant  as  a  living,  working,  struggling 
being  with  a  single  object  in  life,  viz.  to  reproduce  its  kind ; 
and  every  variation  in  structure,  be  it  great  or  little,  is  to  be 
examined  to  determine,  if  possible,  its  use  or  history. 

The  writer  has  had  the  teachers  particularly  in  mind  in 


PREFACE  vii 

arranging  the  order  of  study.  The  seed  is  taken  up  first, 
because  it  is  not  only  readily  obtained,  readily  studied, 
and  its  meaning  clear,  but  it  is  also  one  of  the  most  con- 
venient starting-points  for  a  study  of  the  life-history.  After 
a  few  studies  to  show  how  the  plants  start  upon  an  indepen- 
dent existence,  typical  stems,  roots,  and  leaves  are  consid- 
ered, both  as  to  their  structure  and  as  to  their  usefulness  to 
the  plant.  Then  follows  the  study  of  the  modification  of 
these  organs,  especially  in  plants  which  store  away  nourish- 
ment, which  protect  themselves  from  grazing  animals,  which 
climb  up  above  their  neighbors  for  light  and  air ;  of  plants 
which  are  robbers  or  huntsmen,  taking  their  food  from  other 
plants  or  by  capturing  animals ;  and  finally,  a  glance  at  the 
different  ways  in  which  plants  propagate  their  kind. 

If  both  teacher  and  student  can  conceive  of  the  plant  in 
this  way,  an  abundant  harvest  of  interesting  and  instructive 
phenomena  will  be  presented  to  view,  and  both  will  have 
come  into  far  closer  communion  with  nature  than  is  possible 
in  any  other  way. 

In  conclusion,  the  writer  wishes  to  say  that  this  sketch  is 
intended  for  beginners,  either  in  the  higher  grades  of  the 
primary  schools,  or  in  the  secondary  schools.  It  is  not 
intended  to  hamper  the  teacher  with  too  explicit  directions, 
but  to  assist  in  directing  attention  to  certain  details  and 
leave  the  teacher  free  to  suggest  farther  work  and  thought 
upon  each  subject.  In  the  second  appendix,  especial 
hints  and  suggestions  are  given  to  teachers,  and  references 
through  which  the  writer  hopes  to  convey  to  the  teacher 


viii  PREFACE 

the  point  of  view  which  he  himself  takes  in  the  particular 
exercise. 

It  remains  to  the  writer  to  thank  his  colleagues  in  the 
University  of  California  for  their  valuable  aid  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  this  guide,  and  especially  to  Willis  L.  Jepson,  who 
has  made  valuable  suggestions  at  every  point. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 

BERKELEY,  CAL.,  Sept.  i,  1896. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PACK 

INTRODUCTION xi 

I.    SEEDS i 

II.    SEEDLINGS 11 

III.  ROOTS 17 

IV.  STEMS 19 

V.    LEAVES.    I 25 

VI.    LEAVES.    II 33 

VII.     PHYLLOTAXY 39 

VIII.    BUDS 46 

IX.    PR/EFOLIATION 51 

X.    PROTECTION 55 

XI.    STORAGE 58 

XII.    CLIMBING  PLANTS 64 

XIII.  EPIPHYTES,  PARASITES,  AND  SAPROPHYTES    ...  68 

XIV.  INSECTIVOROUS  PLANTS 73 

XV.     REPRODUCTION 76 

XVI.    VEGETATIVE  REPRODUCTION 77 

XVII.    SEED  REPRODUCTION 81 

XVIII.  A  TYPICAL  OR  PATTERN  FLOWER        ....  82 

XIX.     FERTILIZATION 87 


CONTENTS 


XX.  IMPERFECT,  INCOMPLETE,   IRREGULAR,  AND   UNSYM- 

METRICAL  FLOWERS 90 

XXI.  COALESCENCE  AND  ADNATION 93 

XXII.  WIND-  AND  INSECT-POLLINATION      ....  95 

XXIII.  SELF-POLLINATION 100 

XXIV.  ANTHOTAXY 101 

XXV.  METAMORPHOSIS 106 

XXVI.  FRUITS 109 

XXVII.  FLESHY  FRUITS in 

XXVIII.  DRY  DEHISCENT  FRUITS 116 

XXIX.  DRY  INDEHISCENT  FRUITS 120 

XXX.  SEED  DISPERSAL  BY  ANIMALS   .        .        .        .        .121 

XXXI.  SEED  DISPERSAL  BY  WIND 123 

XXXII.  SEED  DISPERSAL  BY  WATER 125 

XXXIII.  SPORE  REPRODUCTION 126 

APPENDIX  I.  SUGGESTIONS  TO  STUDENTS  .  .  .  .131 
APPENDIX  II.  SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS  .  .  .  .137 
INDEX 183 


INTRODUCTION 

BEFORE  we  begin  to  study  plants  in  any  way,  we  may,  with 
profit,  consider  what  sort  of  things  are  to  be  the  objects  to 
which  our  attention  will  be  given.  In  taking  a  general  sur- 
vey of  the  objects  we  know  in  nature,  and  inquiring  as  to 
how  we  separate  the  plants  from  the  rest,  we  consider, 
roughly  at  least,  the  following  subjects  :  — 

1.  Life.  —  We  readily  separate,  as  far  as  most  things  are 
concerned,  the  members  of  the  mineral  kingdom  from  those 
which  belong  to  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  distin- 
guishing the  two  latter  from  the  former  by  the  fact  that  they 
are  living.    We  need  not  undertake  to  investigate  the  nature 
of  life,  i.e.  what  life  really  is ;  we  may  be  content  with  con- 
sidering it  as  a  certain  kind  of  force  which  manifests  itself  in 
certain  ways  through  matter,  and  that  upon  the  cessation  of 
this  force  what  we  call  death  ensues. 

2.  Plant  and  Animal  Life.  —  We   distinguish,  popularly, 
animal  life  from  plant  life  in  that  the  animal  life  is  animated 
while  the  plant  life  is  not.     The  ordinary  animals  exhibit 
various  movements  which  they  can  control,  —  they  eat,  etc., 
—  and  we  do  not  question  their  living  activities ;  but  the 
plants,  with  few  exceptions,  do  not  appeal  to  us  as  being 

xi 


xii  INTRODUCTION 


actively  alive.  We  do  not  observe  directly  efforts  that  they 
are  making  to  accomplish  their  life  work.  It  is  only  by 
careful  watching  and  observing  that  we  can  even  begin  to 
obtain  any  conception  of  their  actual  activities.  On  this 
account,  it  is  especially  necessary  to  keep  in  mind  the  fact 
that  the  plant  is  a  living  thing. 

3.  Life-History.  —  Each  and  every  living  thing  has  what  is 
called  a  life-history ;  /.<?.  there  is  a  certain  beginning  of  its 
own  separate  life,  which  runs  through  certain  stages,  and 
there  is  finally  an  end  to  the  life  of  that  separate  individual 
at  least ;  i.e.  it  dies.     This  sequence  of  events  from  birth  on 
to  death  is  the  life-history.    With  an  ordinary  flowering  plant 
the  life-history  of  the  independent  individual  begins  with  the 
germinating  seed,  goes  through  the  stages  of  seedling,  mature 
plant,  blossoming,  fruiting,  and  ends  with  the  mature  seed. 
The  parent  dies,  living  on  only  in  its  offspring.    Every  plant, 
being  a  living  thing,  has  a  certain  definite  life-history,  and 
this  must  be  borne  in  mind  throughout  the  work. 

4.  Struggle  for  Existence.  —  We  ordinarily  think  that  a 
plant  simply  grows  and  do  not  consider  it  a  matter  needing 
any  forethought  or  trouble  of  any  kind.    But  when  we  come 
to  look  at  plants  carefully,  we  find  that  forethought,  or  in  other 
words,  provision,  exists  by  means  of  which  seeds  of  different 
plants  have  a  chance  to  get  to  favorable  places  for  germina- 
tion ;  that  when  there  they  may  be  able  to  hold  their  own 
to  a  certain  degree,  and  not  be  crowded  out  by  their  neigh- 
bors ;  that  certain  ones  can  protect  themselves  against  graz- 
ing animals  ;  and  that  in  every  way  each  plant  tries  to  obtain 


INTRODUCTION  xiii 


a  place  to  live  in,  to  obtain  its  nourishment,  to  develop  a 
healthy,  vigorous  body ;  all  in  order  that  it  may  produce  a 
crop  of  good  sound  seeds.  Every  plant,  we  may  say,  is 
struggling  against  every  other  and  against  the  animals,  great 
and  small,  against  certain  unfavorable  conditions  of  temper- 
ature, moisture,  dryness,  etc.,  and  only  the  stronger  and 
better  equipped  survive,  while  the  weaker  perish.  This 
struggle,  while  not  so  evident,  is  fully  as  real  as  that  going 
on  between  the  different  animals,  and  many  peculiarities  of 
plant  structure  are  more  or  less  readily  explained  upon  this 
basis.  What  we  must  look  for  in  our  different  laboratory 
studies,  then,  is  to  see  how  different  plants  have  changed  or 
modified  very  different  parts  to  accomplish  practically  the 
same  object. 

5.  Individuals,  Species,  and  Genera.  —  Each  separate 
plant  is  an  individual.  It  is  easy  to  distinguish  the  individ- 
ual in  almost  all  the  higher  plants,  but  occasionally  the 
technical  distinction  may  be  somewhat  difficult  to  establish. 
These  technical  difficulties  need  not,  however,  disturb  us  in 
our  work  at  all. 

We  recognize  that  many  individuals  are  of  the  same  kind 
or  species.  They  resemble  one  another  so  very  closely,  that 
there  are  no  essential  differences.  We  further  recognize 
that  there  are  groups  of  kinds  or  species  more  nearly  resem- 
bling one  another  than  they  do  other  species ;  such  as  the 
different  kinds  of  violet,  the  different  kinds  of  roses,  etc. 
These  species  we  group  under  the  head  of  genus  (plural 
genera}  ;  e.g.  we  speak  of  the  genus  violet  as  including  the 


INTRODUCTION 


pansy,  the  English  violet,  and  the  various  blue,  white,  and 
yellow  violets.  Genera  are  grouped  into  orders  on  account 
of  resemblances,  and  orders  under  still  larger  divisions,  etc. ; 
but  the  genus,  species,  and  individual  are  all  the  beginner 
need  trouble  about,  at  least  as  far  as  the  present  work  is 
concerned.  When  systematic  work  is  taken  up,  the  scheme 
of  arrangement  of  the  different  subdivisions  will  gradually 
unfold  itself. 


LABORATORY  PRACTICE 


CHAPTER   I 

SEEDS 

I.  Take  the  ripened  pod  of  a  Bean  Plant,  and  splitting  it 
open,  notice  :  — 

1.  That  the  seeds  (Beans)  are  attached  along  one  edge  of 

each  valve  (or  half)  of  the  pod. 

2.  That  each  Bean  is  attached  to  the  pod  by  a  short  stalk, 

\hefunifuhts. 

3.  Make  a  sketch  of  a  valve  of  the  Bean  pod  with  its  en- 

closed beans,  representing  and  labelling  the  parts. 

II.  Take  a  Bean  which  has  been  well  soaked  in  water 
and  examine,  noticing  :  — 

1.  The  general  shape. 

2.  The  color. 

3.  The  scar  or  hilum  on  one  side.     (What  caused  the  pro- 

duction of  this  scar  ?) 

4.  The  •  heart-shaped  purplish  protuberance  at  one  side  of 

the  hilum  (more  readily  seen  by  the  aid  of  a  lens  or 
magnifying  glass) .  This  is  called  a  strophiole,  and  is 
present  only  in  a  few  seeds.  (!/••• 


'LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


"  '5*.  *TRe*sho*rf  *ridge*(ase  the  lens)  running  from  it  toward 
one  end  of  the  seed.  This  ridge  (called  the  rhaphe} 
runs  from  the  hilum  along  upon  the  outside  of  the  seed 
for  a  short  distance,  and  then  penetrating  through  the 
coverings  of  the  seed,  disappears  into  the  interior. 
That  portion  of  the  rhaphe  next  to  the  hilum  is 
covered,  in  the  Bean,  by  the  strophiole. 

6.  The  small  hole  at  the  side  of  the  hilum  just  opposite  the 

strophiole.  This  is  the  micropyle,  and  is  usually 
readily  seen  by  the  aid  of  the  lens.  If  the  surface 
of  the  seed  is  dried  carefully,  water  may  be  made 
to  ooze  out  of  the  micropyle,  if  the  Bean  is  gently 
squeezed.  This  shows  that  the  hole  extends  through 
the  coats  or  coverings  of  the  seed. 

7.  Sketch  the  Bean  in  such  position  as  to  show  all  of  these 

parts,  and  label  each  distinctly. 

III.   With  a  scalpel  or  sharp  penknife,  make  a  cut  along 
the  edge  of  the  Bean  opposite  the  scar. 

1.  Remove  the  seed-coats.     There'are  really  two  seed-coats, 

but  they  are  so  firmly  united  in  the  Bean  as  to  be 
inseparable.  The  strophiole  comes  away  with  the 
seed-coats,  for  it  is  really  a  rudimentary  third  coat. 

2.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  seed-coats  are  not  attached  to 

the  contents  (or  kernel)  of  the  seed  except  at  one 
point,  which  is  just  under  the  place  where  the  rhaphe 
penetrates  the  seed-coats.  This  point  is  called  the 
chalaza.  It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  demonstrate,  but 
if  one  takes  a  dry  Bean  (of  the  small  white  variety, 
commonly  used  for  baking),  and  cuts  out  a  crescent- 
shaped  piece  on  the  hilum  side,  taking  care  to  include 
the  free  end  of  the  rhaphe,  one  or  both  pieces  of  the 


SEEDS 


0-' 
kernel  will   separate   from   the  seed-coats,  and  the  k  \ 

thread-like  connection  may  be  seen. 

3.  Examine  and  sketch  the  kernel  of  the  seed,  removed    : 

whole,  noting :  — 

4.  The  two  thick  halves,  the  cotyledons  or  seed- leaves,  and 

5.  The  single  median  structure,  the  caulicle, 

6.  Determine  (in  another  Bean  if  necessary)  whether  the 

caulicle  lies  on  the  hilum  side  of  the  Bean  or  not,  and      V 
whether  its  free  end  points  toward  the  micropyle  or 
not. 

IV.  Separate    the   cotyledons    carefully   along   the   side 
opposite  to  the  caulicle,  lay  one  of  them  over  on  its  side 
and  sketch  the  parts  in  this  position,  noting  :  — 

1.  The  two  cotyledons,  their  shape,  thickness,  and  consist- 

ency. 

2.  The  small  projection  (auricle)  upon  the  inner  side  of 

each,  beside  the  groove  into  which  the  caulicle  fits. 

3.  The  caulicle,  its  shape,  consistency,  and  attachment  to 

each  cotyledon. 

4.  The  small  bud  or  plumule,  showing  two  folded  leaves  on 

the  outside,  and  lying  upon  the  inner  face  of  one  of 
the  cotyledons. 

5.  Notice  carefully  the  veins  of  these  two  outer  leaves  of  the 

plumule  and  also  the  character  of  the  margins.    How 
do  they  lie,  relatively  to  one  another  ? 

V.  It  i?  to  be  noticed  that  the  cotyledons,  the  caulicle, 
and  the  plumule  are  all  joined  together  into  one  structure, 
which  is  called  the  embryo,  or  the  part  which  is  to  grow  into 
a  new  plant  when  the  seed  sprouts.     We  may  represent  the 
relations  of  the  different  parts  we  have  learned  about,  as 
follows:  — 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


two  seed-coats  (inseparable), 

hilum, 

coverings, 

strophiole, 

rhaphe. 

Bean, 

(chalaza, 

two  cotyledons, 

[  embryo, 

caulicle, 

plumule. 

VI.  Take  a  Pea  which  has  been  well  soaked  in  water, 
examine  it  as  you  did  the  Bean  (II-V),  and  make  sketches. 

Are  all  the  parts  noticed  in  the  Bean  present  in  the  Pea 
also? 

Do  you  notice  any  differences  in  the  shapes  of  the  parts 
in  the  two  seeds  ?  If  so,  state  them  concisely. 

VII.  Take  a  Castor  Bean 1  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  general  shape  and  coloration. 

2.  The  resemblance  to  a  beetle,  such  as  a  "June-Beetle  "  or 

a  "Tick."  (Could  such  a  resemblance  be  of  use  to 
the  Castor  Bean?) 

3.  The  prominence  (or  caruncle)  at  one  end. 

4.  The  depression  in  the  caruncle,  leading  to  the  micropyle 

(sometimes  difficult  to  find).  The  caruncle  is  an 
outgrowth  similar  to  the  strophiole  of  the  Bean  (see 
§§  II,  4,  and  III,  i),  only  it  grows  out  around  the 
micropyle  instead  of  at  the  hilum. 

5.  The  ridge  (or  streak)  on  one  of  the  broader  sides,  the 

rhaphe. 


1  The  pupil  is  warned  not  to  taste  the  kernels  of  the  Castor  Beans,  as  they 
are  poisonous. 


CHAP.  I  SEEDS  5 

6.  The  slight  projection  at  the  end  of  the  rhaphe  opposite  to 

the  caruncle  (the  chalaza). 

7.  The   hilum   is   at   the  side  of  the  caruncle  toward  the 

rhaphe,  but  is  usually  little  prominent  and  hard  to 
find. 

8.  Make  a  sketch  showing  these  points. 

VIII.  Remove  the  dark-colored  "  shell,"  the  testa  or  outer 
seed-coat,  and  notice  :  —  £  0,- 

1.  That  the  kernel  is  found  to  be  enclosed  in  a  thin,  white, 

closely  fitting  inner  seed-coat,  the  tegmen,  which  can 
be  peeled  off.  fa  fa)  UfL^-U^L^t^. 

2.  After  removing  the  tegmen,  carefully  split  the  kernel  paral- 

lel to  the  broader  surfaces.  (This  should  be  done 
very  carefully  so  as  not  to  injure  the  delicate  parts 
within.)  Notice  the  embryo  adhering  to  one  of  the 
inner  faces.  By  gently  inserting  the  scalpel  or  pen- 
knife blade  under  the  caulicle  and  loosening  the 
cotyledons,  the  embryo  may  often  be  removed  un- 
injured. Study  and  sketch  :  — 

1.  The  two  thick  pieces  of  oily  endosperm,  and  the  embryo 

consisting  of  ^^  ,  , 

2.  A  short  thick  caulicle  and 

3.  Two   thin,  flat   cotyledons,   reticulated   with   prominent 

"  veins  "  and  clo'sely  applied  to  one  another.  Sepa- 
rate them  after  sketching  and  demonstrate  that  there 
are  really  two  of  them. 

4.  Is  there  any  plumule  present? 

IX.  Examine  a  seed  of  the  Morning  Glory  which  has 
been  soaked  a  few  hours  in  water.  Answer  the  following 
questions  :  — 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


1.  How  many  seed-coats  can  you  find  ? 

2.  Is  endosperm  present? 

3.  If  so,  of  what  character  is  it? 

4.  What  parts  of  the  embryo  are  present?   - 

5.  How  is  the  embryo  packed  away  within  the  seed-coats? 

X.  Take  a  grain  of  Corn,  softened  and  well  swollen  out  by 
prolonged  soaking,  and  notice  :  — 

1.  Its  size. 

2.  Its  shape. 

3.  At  which  end  it  was  attached  to  the  cob. 

4.  The  differences  between  the  two  broader  sides,  viz.  that 

on  one  side  there  is  an  indented  tongue-shaped  area 
wanting  on  the  other.  This  tongue-shaped  area  indi- 
cates the  position  of  the  embryo. 

5.  At  the  top  of  the  indented  area  there  is  either  a  small 

hole  or  a  short  fibre  present,  the  remains  or  the  point 
of  attachment  of  a  strand  of  "corn-silk." 

6.  Make  sketches  to  show  these  points. 

XI.  Cut  a  grain  of  Corn  into  two  pieces,  in  a  median  lon- 
gitudinal plane,  perpendicular  to  the  broader  surfaces.     On 
one  of  the  cut  surfaces,  notice  :  — 

i.  The  outer  thin  skin.  This  is  more  complex  than  the 
coverings  of  the  Bean,  for  the  grain  of  Corn  is  not 
merely  a  seed,  but  a  one-seeded  fruit,  and  the  outer 
covering  is  made  up  not  only  of  two  seed-coats,  but 
also  of  several  layers  belonging  to  the  ovary  or  sack 
in  which  the  seed  is  formed.  Therefore  the  micro- 
pyle,  rhaphe,  chalaza,  etc.,  are  covered  up,  and  the 
place  where  the  grain  was  attached  to  the  cob  does 
not  correspond  to  the  hilum. 


CHAP.  I  SEEDS  7 

2.  The  lower  firmer  portion,  the  embryo. 

3.  The  upper  softer,  more  mealy  portion,  the  endosperm,  or 

food  stored  away  for  the  use  of  the  embryo  when  it 
begins  to  grow.  This  part  of  the  kernel  of  the  Corn 
is  lacking  in  the  Pea  and  the  Bean,  where  the  food  for 
the  use  of  the  embryo  is  all  stored  away  in  the  thick- 
ened cotyledons. 

4.  Examining  the  cut  surface  of  the  embryo,  notice  that  the 

inner  portion  lying  against  the  endosperm  is  solid 
and  represents  the  single  cotyledon. 

5.  The  outer  portion  consists  of  two  parts  :   an  upper  part 

of  several  pieces,  one  within  the  other  (the plumule}, 
and 

6.  A  lower  solid  part  (the  caulicle}. 

7.  Make  a  detail  sketch  of  the  cut  surface  and  label  carefully. 

XII.  Remove  the  embryo  whole  from  a  softened  grain  of 
Corn  and  notice  :  — 

1.  Its  general  shape. 

2.  The  size  of  the  cotyledon  proportional  to  the  rest  of  the 

embryo. 

3.  The  plumule  and  caulicle,  hidden  from  sight. 

4.  Sketch  the  embryo  in  different  positions. 

XIII.  Examine  a  seed  of  the  Onion  and  notice  :  — 

1.  That  there  is  a  notch  at  one  end. 

2.  That  there  is  a  hole  (the  micropyle}  on  one  side  of  the 

notch,  and 

3.  A  scar  (the  hiluni)  on  the  other. 

XIV.  Holding  the  seed  between  the  thumb  and  first  fin- 
ger, cut  it  into  two  pieces,  in  a  longitudinal  plane  passing 


LABORATORY    PRACTICE 


through  both  micropyle  and  hilum.     Examine  the  cut  sur- 
faces with  the  lens  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  seed-coats. 

2.  The  white,  translucent  endosperm. 

3.  The  coiled  embryo,  lying  within  the  endosperm. 

4.  Removing   the   embryo,  examine  it  with  the  lens  and 

notice  that  there  are  no  distinct  parts.  The  end 
towards  the  micropyle  is  the  caulicle,  the  other  is  the 
single  cotyledon. 

5.  Make  sketches  showing  these  points. 

XV.  Take  a  seed  of  the  Pinon  Pine  and  notice  :  — 

1.  Its  size,  shape,  color,  etc. 

2.  The  micropyle  at  the  narrower  end. 

3.  Remove  the  thick  shell,  which  in  the  Pine  Seed  repre- 

sents the  single  seed-coat  characteristic  of  this  group 
of  seeds  and  notice  :  — 

4.  The  kernel. 

XVI.  Cut  a  longitudinal  slit  in  the  side  of  the  kernel,  and 
carefully  split  (by  the  aid  of  your  thumb-nails)  the  kernel 
into  two  halves,  thus  exposing  :  — 

1.  The  embryo  in  the  centre  surrounded  by  the  firm  white 

endosperm. 

2.  Study  and  sketch  the  embryo,  noticing  :  — 

3.  The  caulicle,  straight  and  undivided,  and 

4.  The  several  (6-n)  narrow  cotyledons. 

XVII.  Take  the  kernel  of  another  seed  and  make  a  cross- 
section   through  the  region  of  the   cotyledons.     Examine 
with  the  lens  and  make  a  sketch,  noting  :  — 

1 .  The  ring  of  endosperm,  enclosing 

2.  The  cotyledons,  arranged  in  a  circle  or  whorl. 


SEEDS 


•uinnH 


•USUI33J, 


LABORATORY    PRACTICE 


XVIII.  In  reviewing  the  work  done  upon  seeds,  fill  out 
the  blanks  in  a  table  copied  into  the  note-books  from  the 
form  on  page  9. 

XIX.  Questions  about  Seeds.  —  The  answers  should  be 
written  out  carefully  in  the  note-books. 

1.  What  are  the  essential  parts  of  a  seed  (i.e.  what  parts 

must  be   present  in  order  that  any  object  can  be 
called  a  seed)  ? 

2.  What  is  the  embryo? 

3.  What  are  the  parts  of  the  embryo  ? 

4.  In  what  two  ways  is  food  stored  away  for  the  use  of  the 

embryo  ? 

5.  How  do  embryos  differ  from  one  another  as  regards  the 

number  of  cotyledons? 

6.  Is  the  dry  seed  alive  or  dead?     Give  the  reasons  for 

your  answer. 

7.  What  characterizes  the  cotyledons  which  contain  all  the 

nourishment  for  the  embryo  ? 

8.  Is  the  resting  condition  of  the  dry  seed  of  any  especial 

use  to  the  plant?     If  so,  of  what  use  or  uses  may  it 
be? 

9.  Why  are  the  embryos  folded  up  and  packed  away  in  so 

small  a  space  ? 


SEEDLINGS 


CHAPTER    II 

SEEDLINGS 

I.  Take  some  Peas  which  are  just  beginning  to  sprout, 
and  notice :  — 

1.  What  organ  protrudes  itself  first  from  the  seed-coats? 

2.  Make  sketches  showing  this. 

II.  Take  some  sprouting  Beans,  notice  the  same  point 
and  make  sketches. 

III.  Take  some  sprouting  grains  of  Corn,  notice  the  same 
point  and  make  sketches. 

IV.  Take  a  pot  of  well-grown  seedlings  of  the  Pea  and 
notice  :  — 

1.  The  position  of  the  cotyledons  relative  to  the  surface  of 

the  soil. 

Dig    up    some    of    the    seedlings    carefully   and 
notice  :  — 

2.  That  the  cotyledons  remain  closely  pressed  together  and 

within  the  seed-coats. 

3.  That  the  caulicle  remains  short,  but  that 

4.  A  fairly  long  root  (a  primary  roof)  with  branches  has 

grown  out  and  downward  from  its  tip. 

5.  That  the  plumule  has  grown  out  from  between  the  coty- 

ledons and  upwards  into  the  light. 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


6.  This  elongated  plumule  consists  of  several  joints  (nodes}, 

each  bearing  a/<f#/(or  scale  representing  a  leaf)  and 
intervals  between  these  (the  internodes). 

7.  Make  a  sketch  showing  these  different  parts  and  label 

each  carefully. 

V.   Take  a  pot  of  well-grown  Bean  Seedlings  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  position  of  the  cotyledons  relative  to  the  surface  of 

the  soil. 

Examine  some  seedlings  which  have  been  carefully 
removed  from  the  soil  and  notice  that :  — 

2.  The  cotyledons  have  cast  off  (as  a  general  rule)  the  seed- 

coats  and  have  separated  from  one  another.  In  the 
older  seedlings  they  have  become  greenish  ;  and  in  the 
oldest  seedlings  of  all  they  have  dried  up  and  fallen  off. 

3.  The  caulicle  has   elongated  to  many  times  its  original 

length  and  has  become  stouter  and  green  in  color. 

4.  A  stout  main  root  (a  primary  roof)  with  branches  has 

grown  from  the  tip  of  the  caulicle. 

5.  The   plumule   has   lengthened    and   consists   of  several 

nodes,  internodes,  and  leaves. 

6.  The  leaves  borne  upon  the  first  node  above  the  cotyle- 

dons number  two,  are  on  opposite  sides  of  the  node, 
and  are  different  in  size,  shape,  color,  and  texture  from 
the  cotyledons.  They  are  also  placed  upon  the  stem 
at  right  angles  to  the  cotyledons. 

7.  The  second  node  above  the  cotyledons  bears  a  single 

leaf,  having  its  flattened  portion  (the  blade)  in  three 
separate  pieces  instead  of  in  one  as  in  the  cotyledons 
and  the  first  pair  of  green  leaves. 

8.  Make    a    sketch  of  the   Bean   Seedling  showing  these 

points. 


CHAP.  II  SEEDLINGS  13 

VI.  Examine   several   pots  containing  seedlings  of  the 
Castor  Bean  of  various  ages.     Notice  that :  — 

1.  The  caulicle  first  breaks  through  the  surface  of  the  soil 

and  is  bent  into  a  "  loop,"  both  ends  being  still 
buried. 

2.  The  "  loop  "  increases  in  size  and  rises  higher  and  higher 

until 

3.  At  length  the  main  body  of  the  seed  begins  to  break 

through  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

4.  The  outer  seed-coat  {testa)  is  usually  left  behind  in  the 

ground,  but  the  inner  seed-coat  (tegmeii)  with  the 
enclosed  endosperm  and  cotyledons  is  pulled  out  of 
the  ground  by  this  action  of  the  caulicle. 

5.  Older  seedlings  will  show  how  the  cotyledons  gradually 

separate  from  one  another  while  still  absorbing  nour- 
ishment from  the  endosperm,  but  — 

6.  They  finally  separate  widely  along  their  whole  .length, 

throwing  off  the  tegmen  and  what  is  left  of  the  endo- 
sperm, and  are  ready  to  do  the  work  of  leaves,  as  is 
shown  by  their  expanding  and  turning  green. 

7.  Make  a  series  of  sketches  to  illustrate  these  points. 

8.  Compare  the  cotyledons  with  one  of  the  leaves  of  an 

adult  plant  of  the  Castor  Bean  as  regards  size,  shape, 
color  (of  both  surfaces),  and  venation  (arrangement 
of  the  veins  or  ribs) . 

VII.  Take  a  pot  of  fairly  well  grown  seedlings  of  Indian 
Corn  and  notice  that :  — 


i. 


The  plumule,  enwrapped  in  the  tip  of  the  cotyledon, 
is  the  first  part  of  the  seed  to  appear  above  the 
ground. 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


Examine  a  seedling  which  has  been  carefully  re- 
moved from  the  earth  and  notice  that :  — 

2.  The   cotyledon   remains  within   the   seed-coats   closely 

applied  to  the  endosperm,  which  becomes  semi-fluid 
and  milky,  is  gradually  absorbed  by  the  cotyledon 
(acting  as  a  sort  of  sucker)  and  transferred  to  the 
growing  parts,  which  are  :  — 

3.  The  primary  root  or  roots,  arising  from  the  tip  or  sides 

of  the  caulicle,  which  lengthens  very  little,  and 

4.  The  elongated  plumule,  which  consists  of  nodes,  each 

bearing  a  single  grass-like  leaf,  and  short  internodes. 

5.  Notice  that  roots  are  also  given  off  just  above  the  coty- 

ledon and  from  the  nodes  of  the  plumule.  These 
are  adventitious  roots.  The  difference  between  ad- 
ventitious and  primary  roots  is,  that  the  primary  roots 
grow  from  the  caulicle,  i.e.  originate  below  the  cotyle- 
dons, while  adventitious  roots  originate  above  the  coty- 
ledons. 

6.  Sketch  a  seedling  of  the  Indian  Corn,  showing  these 

points. 

VIII.    Examine  several  pots  of  Onion  Seedlings  of  various 
ages  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  green  loops  just  appearing  above  the  ground  and 

becoming  larger  until  they  pull  the  seed-coats  and  the 
endosperm  out  of  the  ground. 

The  examination  of  seedlings  which   have  been 
carefully  removed  from  the  soil,  shows  that :  — 

2.  The   green   loop  is   in   each   case  the  single   cotyledon 

which,  by  its  elongation,  has  pushed  the  short  cau- 
licle out  from  the  seed-coats  and  has  finally  pulled 
the  seed-coats  and  endosperm  from  the  ground,  while 


CHAP.  11  SEEDLINGS  15 

3.  The  short  caulicle  has  not  lengthened  at  all,  but  has  given 

rise  to  one  or  more  primary  roots  from  its  tip. 

4.  Very  old  seedlings  will  show  the  tip  of  the  cotyledon 

withering  away  and  losing  the  now  emptied  seed- 
coats,  while  the  plumule  emerges  from  a  longitudinal 
slit  at  the  base. 

5.  Make  a  series  of  sketches  to  show  these  points. 

IX.  Take  some  Pine  Seedlings  (of  different  ages  if  possi- 
ble) and  notice  that :  — 

1.  The  lengthening  caulicle  bends  to  form  a  loop  and  pulls 

the  cotyledons  with  the  seed-coat  and  endosperm 
out  of  the  ground.  (This  does  not  always  happen, 
however,  in  the  species  with  large  seeds  or  "  nuts.") 

2.  The  spreading  cotyledons  cast  off  the  seed-coats  and 

expand  to  form  a  circle  or  whorl  of  needle-shaped 
leaves. 

3.  The  plumule  appears  only  after  some  time  has  gone  by. 

4.  Make  a  series  of  sketches  to  show  these  points. 

X.  In  order  that  an  ordinary  seed  may  germinate,  it  is 
placed  usually  in  a   light  soil  whose   particles  have  been 
loosened,  well  watered,  and   kept  warm.      We   may  infer 
from  this  that  access  of  air,  water,  and  a  sufficiently  high 
temperature  are  necessary. 

1 .  Place  dry  Peas  in  dry,  loose  sawdust,  add  no  water,  keep 

in  a  warm  place,  and  watch  several  days,  after  which 
uncover  the  Peas  and  examine  to  see  whether  any 
changes  have  taken  place. 

2.  Place  dry  Peas  in  dry,  loose  sawdust,  occasionally  sprin- 

kle well  with  water,  keep  in  a  warm  place,  watch,  and 
examine  as  in  (i). 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


3.  Place  dry  Peas  in  dry,  loose  sawdust,  occasionally  sprin- 

kle well  with  water,  keep  in  the  refrigerator  at  a  low 
temperature,  watch,  and  examine  as  in  (i), 

4.  Make  careful  notes  of  any  differences  observed  as  regards 

the  behavior  of  the  three  sets  of  peas  from  day  to  day. 

XL    Questions  for  Summary  and  Review. 

1.  What  part  of  the  embryo  protrudes  first  from  the  seed- 

coats? 

2.  In  what  plants  does  the  caulicle  form  a  loop  and  appear 

above  the  ground  first? 

3.  In  what  plants  does  the  cotyledon  form  a  loop  and 

appear  above  the  ground  first? 

4.  In  what  plants  do  the   cotyledons    emerge  from   the 

ground  ? 

5.  In  what  plants  do  the  cotyledons  remain  below  the 

surface  of  the  ground  ? 

6.  In  what  plants  do  the  cotyledons  bring  the  endosperm 

up  above  the  ground  ? 

7.  In  what  plant  does  the   cotyledon  remain  below  the 

ground  absorbing  nourishment  from  the  endosperm  ? 

8.  In  what   plants  does   the   plumule  appear  above  the 

ground  first?  * 

9.  In  what  plants  does  the  caulicle  lengthen  considerably? 

10.  In  what  plants  does  it  remain  short? 

11.  In  what  plants  do  the  cotyledons  turn  green,  live  for 

some  time,  and  act  like  ordinary  leaves? 

12.  In  what  plants  does  the  plumule  grow  out  promptly? 

13.  In  what  plants  does  it  grow  out  only  after  some  time? 

14.  What  reasons  can  you  give  for  the  different  shapes  of  the 

cotyledons  in  different  plants? 

15.  Why  are  they  different  from  the  adult  leaves  of  the 

same  plant? 


ROOTS 


CHAPTER   III 

ROOTS 

I.  Examine  the  root  of  a  well-grown  plant  of  the  Bean 
and  notice  that :  — 

1.  It  is  a  single  main  root.     We  know  from  our  previous 

study  (cf.  Chapter  II,  §  V,  4)  that  it  is  a  primary 
roof.  A  single,  persistent,  primary  root,  such  as  this 
of  the  Bean,  is  called  a  tap  roof. 

2.  From   the   sides   of    the    primary   root    are    given    off 

branches  growing  obliquely  outwards.  These  are 
secondary  roots.  They  in  turn  give  rise  to  tertiary 
roots,  etc. 

3.  There  are  no  nodes  and  internodes  on  these  roots. 

4.  All  the  roots  grow  more  or  less  downwards  and  away 

from  the  light. 

5.  Make  a  sketch  showing  these  points. 

II.  Examine  the  roots  of  a  well-grown  seedling  of  the 
Squash  and  notice  that :  — 

1.  The  several  roots  all  spring  from  near  the  same  point  at 

the  base  of  the  elongated  caulicle.  Such  roots  as 
these  are  called  multiple  primary  roots,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  single  primary  root  of  the  Bean. 

2,  3,  4,  and  5  as  in  I. 


LABORATORY  PRACTICE 


III.  Adventitious  roots  have  already  been  examined  in 
the  seedlings  of  Indian  Corn.      Examine  the  base  of  an 
adult  Corn  Stalk  and  notice  that :  ^- 

1.  The  primary  roots  have  disappeared  long  ago. 

2.  Each  of  the  lower  nodes  of  the  "stalk"  or  stem  bears 

a  circle  of  secondary  roots,  extending  out  obliquely 
downwards,  and  as  the  nodes  and  roots  die  away 
below,  new  secondary  roots  are  formed  at  the  nodes 
above. 

3.  Make  a  sketch  showing  these  points. 

4.  Why  does  the  farmer  "  hill  up  "  the  Corn? 

IV.  Root  Hairs.  —  Examine  the  roots  of  the  Pea,  Bean, 
and  Corn,  grown  in  loose,  damp  sawdust  (or   in   a  moist 
chamber),  with  a  lens.     Notice  and  sketch  the  root  hairs. 
Upon  what  portions  of  the  roots  do  they  occur?     Of  what 
use  are  they  to  the  plant? 

V.  Summary  and  Questions. 

1.  Of  what  two  principal  uses  are  the  ordinary  (or  typical} 

roots  to  the  plant? 

2.  Why  do  we  water  the  roots  of  the  plants? 

3.  Why  are  fertilizers  placed  about  plants  or  in  the  soil  in 

which  seeds  are  sown  or  plants  are  planted? 

4.  Why  do  the  roots  spread  out  below  ground  ? 

5.  What  are  the  differences  between  primary  and  secondary 

roots  ? 

6.  What  are  the  differences  between  primary  and  adven- 

titious roots  ? 

7.  What  is  a  tap  root  ? 

8.  What  are  multiple  primary  roots? 


STEMS 


CHAPTER   IV 

STEMS 

I.  Take  a  piece  of  Sunflower  stem,  several  inches  long, 
examine  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  regular  succession  of  nodes  and  internodes.     (For 

definitions  turn  back  to  §  IV,  6,  under  Seedlings, 
p.  12.) 

2.  The   consistency   of  the   stem   (in   this   case   not  very 

woody) . 

3.  How  long  does  the  Sunflower  stem  live? 

4.  The  Sunflower  is  an  herb  and  its  stem  is  said  to  be  her- 

baceous.    Why?   i  / J^\JtA^^ 

5.  Make  a  sketch  of  this  piece  of  stem.  VW- 

II.  Examine  a  thin  section  of  the  Sunflower  stem,  cut 
transversely.      (These  sections  are  best,  if  prepared  by  the 
teacher   and  examined  under   the   lens   of  the   dissecting 
microscope,    or  under   the   lower   power   of  a   compound 
microscope.)     Notice  :  — 

1.  The  central  softer  portion,  the  pith,  made  up  of  larger 

or  smaller  polygonal  spaces,  the  cells. 

2.  The  ring  of  rather  irregularly  shaped  bodies  surrounding 

the  pith,  the  woody  or  vascular  bundles. 

3.  The  outer  bark  or  cortex,  including  everything  outside  of 

the  vascular  bundles,  except 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


4.  The    very    outermost    skin-like    layer,    the     epidermis. 

(This,    in   the    Sunflower,   is   rough,  with   hair-like 
outgrowths. 

5.  Make  a  sketch  or  diagram  to  show  the  arrangement  of 

these  parts. 

III.  Examine  one  vascular  bundle  carefully  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  inner  porous  portion,  the  woody  portion  or  xylem. 

2.  The  outer  denser  portion,  the  hard  bast. 

3.  The  central  portion,  a  band-like  layer,  which  under  the 

higher  powers  of  the  compound  microscope  may  be 

seen  to  consist  of  two  parts. 

(a)  the  cambium  or  actively  growing  portion,  a  nar- 
row layer  next  the  xylem,  and 

(h)  The  soft  bast  or  phloem,  occupying  the  greater 
part  of  this  region  and  lying  toward  the  hard 
bast.  (The  hard  bast  makes  up  that  part  of 
the  stem  known  as  the  inner  bark.) 

IV.  The  parts  of  the  Sunflower  stem  are  :  — 


Pith. 
Vascular  bundles, 
Cortex. 
Epidermis. 

xylem  or  wood, 
cambium, 
bast,          {  soft  bast  or  Phloem. 
1  hard  bast. 

V.  Take  from  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  of  an 
internode  of  Sunflower  stem,  and  with  a  sharp  scalpel  or 
penknife  blade,  scrape  away  carefully  the  epidermis  and 
cortex,  exposing :  — 

i.   The  vascular  bundles.     Notice  their  longitudinal  course 
and  the  fact  that  they  run  parallel  to  one  another. 


CHAP,  iv  STEMS  21 

2.  Detach  one  or  two  of  the  vascular  bundles  at  one  end 

and  peel  them  away  from  the  pith.  Notice  the 
fibrous  character  of  the  bundle.  (Very  frequently 
the  hard  bast  is  the  only  portion  which  will  come 
away  from  the  pith.) 

3.  Test  the  strength  of  a  vascular  bundle  as  compared  with 

a  piece  of  the  pith. 

4.  Make  a  sketch  with  notes  to  record  these  points. 

VI.  The  Sunflower  stem  is  a  good  type  of  an  exogenous 
stem,  or  one  which  has  the  vascular  bundles  arranged  in  a 
cylinder  about  a  central  pith.     (In  some  plants  the  pith 
disappears  during  growth  and  the  stem  becomes  hollow.) 
Plants  with  exogenous  stems  have  netted-veined  leaves,  di- 
or  poly-cotyledonous  embryos  and  the  parts  of  the  flower 
usually  arranged  in  fours  or  fives. 

VII.  Take  a  piece  of  the  stem  of  Indian  Corn  several 
inches  long,  examine  carefully  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  regular  succession  of  nodes  and  internodes. 

2.  The  consistency  of  the  stem  (see  §  I,  2,  of  this  chapter). 

3.  How  long  does  the  Corn  stem  live? 

4.  Is  it  herbaceous  or  not?   (see  §  I,  4,  of  this  chapter). 

5.  Make  a  sketch  of  this  piece  of  stem,  representing  and 

labelling  the  parts. 

VIII.  Examine  a  thin  transverse  section  of  the  stem  of 
Indian  Corn  in  the  way  indicated  in  paragraph  II  of  this 
chapter.     Notice :  — 

1.  The  vascular  bundles.     These  are  scattered  through  the 

pith,  leaving  no  central  portion  free. 

2.  The    outer   bundles  We    placed    closer    together    and 

approach  the  outer  edge  very  closely,  but  there  is 


LABORATORY    PRACTICE 


3.  An  outer  dense  layer,  the  rind.     What  is  this  rind  for? 

4.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  section  to  show  these  points. 

IX.  Take  several  inches  of  an  internode  of  the  stem  of 
Indian  Corn,  cut  a  thin  slice  lengthwise  from  the  middle, 
hold  it  up  to  the  light,  examine  with  the  lens,  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  vascular  bundles  pursue  direct  longitudinal  courses 

through   the    pithy  portion  and   are  approximately 
parallel. 

2.  Make  a  sketch  or  diagram  to  show  this. 

X.  The  stem  of  Indian  Corn  is  a  good  type  of  an  endoge- 
nous stem,  or  one  which  has  the  vascular  bundles  distributed 
fairly  uniformly  through  the  pith  and  not  forming  a  cylinder 
outside  it.      Plants  with  endogenous   stems,   usually   have 
parallel-veined  leaves,  monocotyledonous   embryos   and   the 
parts  of  the  flower  arranged  in  threes. 

XI.  Take  a  piece  of  a  Walnut  or  Butternut  about  a  foot 
long  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  regular  succession  of  nodes  and  internodes. 

2.  The  consistency  of  the  stem  (see  §  I,  2,  of  this  chapter). 

3.  How  long  does  the  stem  of  the  Walnut  or  Butternut  live  ? 

\  (see  §  I,  4,  of  this  chapter) .  Plants  with  considera- 
.v^  1  ble  wood  and  which  remain  from  year  to  year  without 
>  Y  dying  down  to  the  ground  (as  the  Sunflower  and 


Indian  Corn  do)  are  either  shrubs  or  trees. 
A  shrub  is  smaller  than  a  tree  and  does  n 
vA?  "    possess  a  distinct  trunk.     Give  some  examples. 

The  stem  of  a  shrub  is  said  to  be  fruticose,  suf- 
fruticose  or  suffrutescent.     How  do  the  stems  to  which      V* 
these  terms  are  applied,  differ  from  one  another  ? 


^  **" 


> 


:. 


CHAP,  iv  STEMS  23 

The  stem  of  a  tree  is  said  to  be  either  arboreus 

/  *  f         / 

or  arborescent.     What  is  the  difference?  ju/^    t  j 

/&«*•  ^4;          , 

XII.  Examine  the  surface  of  a  branch  of  Walnut  or  But- 
ternut which  has  been  cut  across  with  a  sharp  knife   (or 
razor),  and  with  the  aid  of  the  lens  notice  :  — 

1 .  The  central  pith. 

2.  The   ring  (or  rings  —  notice   the   number  in  different 

twigs)   of  wood  (xylem)   about  the  pith. 

3.  The  fine  white  lines  radiating  out  from  the  pith  through 

the  wood.     These  are  the  medullary  ra\s. 

4.  Outside  the  rings  of  wood,  a  narrow  whitish  ring,  the 

inner  part  of  which  is  the  cambium,  the  outer  part 
the  soft  bast. 

5.  Outside  of  this  a  ring  of  dots,  the  hard  bast. 

6.  Then  a  fairly  wide,  yellowish  green  ring,  the  cortex,  and 

finally 

7.  A  narrow  brown  ring,  the  corky  bark. 

8.  Make  a  sketch,  representing  and  labelling  the  parts. 

XIII.  i.    Is  the  stem  just  studied,  exogenous  or  endoge- 
nous ?     Why  ? 

2.  How  old  was  the  branch  you  were  studying? 

3.  How  may  we  tell  the  age  of  a  tree? 

4.  Can  you  name  any  tree  or  trees  possessing  the  other 

kind  of  stem? 

5.  The  trunk  and  branches  of  exogenous  trees  increase  in 

girth  through  the  activity  of  the  cambium  ring  which 
forms  new  wood  or  xylem  on  the  inner  side  and  new 
bast  or  phloem  on  the  outer  side.  Most  endogenous 
stems,  having  no  cambium  ring,  do  not  increase  very 
much  in  girth. 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


XIV.  Reviewing  the  work  done  upon   both   roots  and 
stems,  write  the  answers  to  the  following  questions  in  your 
note-book :  — 

1.  What  differences  exist  between  the  growth  of  roots  and 

stems  as  regards  gravity? 

2.  What  differences  as  regards  light? 

3.  What  differences  as  regards  the  possession  of  leaves? 

4.  What  differences  as  regards  nodes  and  internodes? 

5.  How,  then,  may  we  always  tell  a  stem  from  a  root? 

XV.  Considering  the  different  stems  studied  and  exam- 
ined, either  in  connection  with  the  book  or  in  addition  to 
those  mentioned  there,  answer  the  following  :  — 

1.  How  do  we  classify  stems  according  to  their  structure? 

2.  How  do  we  classify  stems  according  to  their  consistency 

and  duration? 

3.  In  what  different  directions  may  stems  (i.e.  those  above 

the  ground)  grow? 

XVI.  Having  considered  the  structure  of  several  different 
characteristic  stems,  we  may  examine  them  to  see  of  what 
service  the  stem  is  to  the  plant.     We  notice  :    (i)  that  the 
upper  part  of  the  stem  bears  the  leaves  and  carries  them  up 
into  the  light  and  air;  (2)   that  the  lower  part  bears  the 
roots  which  make  their  way  down  into  the  ground. 

The  stem  serves  not  only  to  support  the  leaves,  but  also 
as  a  pathway  by  which  whatever  the  roo£s  absorb  from  the 
earth  may  be  transported  to  the  leaves  —  and  also  for 
the  transfer  of  whatever  the  leaves  may  manufacture  to  the 
roots ;  in  other  words,  it  connects  these  two  important  sets 
of  organs. 

-  u 

$L\JL.   '. 


LEAVES 


CHAPTER   V 
LEAVES.    I  ^M     ,  J 

I.  Take  a  piece  of  stem  of  the  Japanese  Quince  which 
has  several  leaves  attached  to  it.  Examine  the  leaves  and 
notice  that :  — 

1.  They  are  all  borne  on  the  sides  of  the  stem  (i.e.  that 

they  are  lateral  structures} . 

2.  They  are  broad  and  thin   (i.e.  they  are  also  expanded 

structures). 

3.  Their  color  is  green.     (This  is  not  true  for  all  leaves,  e.g. 

examine  the  leaves  of  some  common  red  Coleus  of 
the  garden  or  greenhouse,  in  which  another  coloring- 
matter  is  present  and  hides  the  green.) 

4.  They  are  borne  at  the  nodes  of  the  stem.    (We  may  con- 

sequently separate  that  portion  of  the  plant  above  the 
root  into  a  number  of  similar  parts,  each  of  which 
may  be  called  a  phytomer  or  plant  part.  Each  phy- 
tomer  will  consist  of  an  internode,  and  a  node  with 
its  leaf  or  leaves.  Sketch  a  phytomer  of  the  Japanese 
Quince  and  label  it.) 

5.  They  grow  only  to  be  of  a  certain  size  and  then  stop   / 

(being  flnlike  stems  or  branches  in  this  respect). 

6.  Notice  that  each  leaf  has  a  small  bud  in  its  axil,  i.e.  in 

the  angle  between  its  upper  surface  and  the  stem. 

7.  We  may  define  a  leaf  as  being  an  expanded,  lateral  struc- 

ture of  limited  growth,  borne  on  the  stem  and  usually 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


with  a  bud  (or  branch}  in  its  axil.  (This  definition, 
while  a  good  working  definition,  will  not  apply  in  a 
few  exceptional  cases.  But  the  same  thing  will  be 
found  true  of  almost  any  definition  of  any  natural 
object.) 
8.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  these  points. 

II.  Remove  one  leaf  carefully  so  as  to  retain  all  the  parts, 
and  notice  :  — 

1.  The   broad    expanded    portion,   the    blade  or  lamina. 

Notice  its  outline. 

2.  The  slender  stalk  or  petiole. 

3.  The  pair  of  small  expanded  structures,  the  stipules,  at  the 

base  of  the  petiole. 

4.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  these  parts  and  label  carefully. 

5.  This  leaf  is  a  good  type  of  a  simple  leaf  (i.e.  of  a  leaf  with 

a  single  blade}  having  all  the  three  parts  represented; 
viz.  blade,  petiole,  and  stipules. 

III.  Examine   the   blade   of  the   leaf  of  the   Japanese 
Quince   (or  better,  that  of  some  thinner  leaf  such  as  the 
Mock  Orange  or  the  Pittosporum)  and  notice  the  venation 
or  method  of  arrangement  of  the  veins  or  ribs. 

1.  A  prominent  midrib. 

2.  Side  veins  or  ribs  running  outward  toward  the  edge  and 

obliquely  upwards. 

3.  These  in  turn  branch,  and  then  these  branches  branch 

again,  and  so  on,  the  finer  branches  anastomosing  or 
joining  to  form  a  fine  network.  Such  a  leaf  as  this 
is  said  to  be  netted-veined. 

4.  Make  a  sketch  to  illustrate  this. 


LEAVES 


IV.  Take  a  leaf  of  the  common  "  English  Ivy,"  which  is 
also  netted-veined,  and  compare  it  with  the  one  just  studied, 
noting  the  similarities  and  differences.     Notice  also  :  — 

1.  The  different  shape  of  the  leaf  blade.     It  is  said  to  be 

palmately-lobed. 

2.  Make  a  rough  sketch. 

V.  Take  a  leaf  of  the  Lily  of  the  Valley  and  study  the 
venation,  noticing :  — 

1.  The  central  stouter  vein. 

2.  The  other  veins  running  approximately  parallel  to  it. 

3.  The  absence  of  conspicuous  anastomosing  veins  to  form 

a  network. 

4.  Such  a  leaf  as  that  of  the  Lily  of  the  Valley  is  said  to  be 

parallel-veined. 

5.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  this  kind  of  venation. 

VI.  Take  a  leaf  of  the  Calla  Lily  and  study  the  venation. 
Notice :  — 

1.  The  central  vein  or  rib. 

2.  The  side  veins  running  out  from  it. 

3.  This  leaf  is  also  said  to  be  parallel-veined  and  represents 

simply  a  different  arrangement. 

4.  Draw  a  sketch  to  illustrate  this  method  of  venation. 

VII.  Netted-veined  leaves  are  usually  associated  with  ex- 
ogenous stems,  dicotyledonous  embryos,  and  the  parts  of  the 
flower  arranged  in  fours  or  fives. 

Parallel-veined  leaves  are  usually  associated  with  endoge- 
nous stems,  monocotyledonous  embryos,  and  the  parts  of  the 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


flower  arranged  in  threes.     (See  also  §§  VI  and  X  of  the 
preceding  chapter.) 

VIII.  Take  a  leaf  of  the  Five- Finger  (or  the  Garden 
Strawberry),  examine  carefully,  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  stipules. 

2.  T&z  petiole. 

3.  The  blade  composed  of  several  pieces  or  leaflets  (3  to  8). 

4.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  these  parts. 

IX.  The  leaf  just  studied  is  called  a  compound  leaf,  be- 
cause the  blade  consists  of  more  than  one  piece.     It  is 
also  called  a  palmately  compound  leaf  because  the  leaflets 
radiate  out  from  one  point,  as  the  fingers  do  from  the  palm 
of  the  hand. 

X.  Take  a  Rose  leaf,  examine,  and  notice  :  — 

1.  Ite  stipules. 

2.  '\\itpetiole. 

3.  The  compound  nature  of  the  blade  consisting  of  several 

leaflets. 

4.  The  differences  between  this  and  the  last  leaf  studied,  as 

regards  the  position  of  the  leaflets ;  viz.  that  in  the 
Rose  they  arise  from  different  points  along  what  cor- 
responds to  the  midrib  of  the  simple  blade. 

5.  Such  a  leaf  as  that  of  the  Rose  is  said  to  be  pinnately 

(from  pinna,  a  feather)  compound. 

6.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  Rose  leaf. 

XI.  Examine  a  Parsley  leaf  and  notice  :  — 

r .   That  it  is  several  times  compound,  or  decompound. 
2.  That  the  parts  are  arranged  in  a  palm  ate  fashion. 
1.   Sftetch. 


CHAP.  v.  LEAVES  29 

XII.  Take  as  many  different  simple  leaves  as  you  can. 
Examine  them  as  regards  the  following  points  :  — 

1.  Parts  present  or  absent ;  i.e.  blade,  petiole,  and  stipules. 

2.  General  outline  of  the  blade. 

In  this  respect  they  may  be  classified  as  follows  :  — 
(a)  Of  the  same  width  throughout  =  linear  or  oblong, 
(b}   Broadest  at  the  base  =  lanceolate,  ovate,  or  ovate- 
lanceolate. 

(f)  Broadest  at  the  middle  =  elliptical,  oval,  or  or- 

bicular. 
((£)  Broadest  at  the  apex  =  spatulate,  oblanceolate, 

obovate,  or  cuneate. 
(<?)    Special  shape  of  the  base,  e.g. :  — 

cordate,  reniform,  auriculate,  sagittate,  hastate, 

or  peltate. 
(/)  Special  shape  of  apex,  e.g. :  — 

(*)       pointed  =  acuminate,  acute,  cuspidate, 

mucronate,  or  aristate. 
(**)     blunt  =  obtuse  or  truncate. 
(***)   notched  =  refuse,   emarginate,    or   ob- 
cordate. 

(g)  Character  of  margin  =  entire,  serrulate,  serrate, 

denticulate,  dentate,  crenate,  undulate,  lobed, 
cleft,  parted,  or  divided. 

(li)  Character  of  the  surfaces  =  smooth,  glabrous, 
glaucous,  rugose,  scabrous,  pubescent,  tomen- 
tose,  sericeous,  pilose,  hirsute,  hispid,  etc. 

XIII.  Take  a  piece  of  the  leaf  of  a  Calla  Lily  and  study 
its  structure. 

i.   With  a  scalpel  or  blade  of  a  penknife  strip  off  a  piece  of 
the  transparent  outer  skin  or  epidermis. 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


2.  Examine  the  green  pulpy   material  thus  laid  bare  and 

notice  — 

3.  That  it  is  spread  out  upon  a  woody  framework  composed 

of  the  veins. 

XIV.  Examine  a  bit  of  the  Calla  leaf  with  the  lens  and 
notice  the  numerous  small  dots  upon  its  surface.     These  are 
the  stomata,  or  breathing  pores,  through  which  an  interchange 
of  gases  goes   on   between  the  outside  air  and  the  small 
spaces  in  the  green  pulp  of  the  leaf.     (A  single  stoma  may 
be  studied  by  examining  a  small  piece  of  the  epidermis 
under  the  lenses  of  a  compound  microscope.) 

XV.  The  services  rendered  a  plant  by  its  ordinary,  or 
foliage  leaves   cannot   readily  be  inferred  without   careful 
experiment.     We  notice,  however,  that  the  plant  sends  up 
its  leaves  into  the  air  and  sunshine.     We  notice,  also,  that 
leaves  developed  in  the  dark  (as  e.g.  on  potatoes  in  the 
cellar)  are  pale  yellow,  but  become  green  again  if  placed  in 
the  light.     We  conclude  that  the  leaves  need  air  and  sun- 
shine to  do  their  proper  work.     The  existence  of  breathing 
pores  helps  us  to  understand  that  the  leaves  are  gas-absorb- 
ing organs ;  that  is,  that  they  take  something  (in  this  case 
carbonic   acid  gas)   from   the   air,   and  in  their  turn  give 
something  back  (in  this  case  oxygen).     It  can  be  demon- 
strated that  water,  in  the  form  of  vapor,  escapes  from  the 
leaf,  and  that  this  loss  must  be  made  good  by  the  stem 
giving  up  some  of  its  water,  and  the  stem,  in  turn,  receives 
water  from  the  roots.     In  this  way  a  current  of  water  is 
helped  to  move  from  the  roots  up  through  the  stem  into  the 
leaves. 

The  water  thus  obtained  contains,  dissolved  in  it,  small 
quantities  of  various  substances,  parts  of  which  are  combined 


CHAP.  v.  LEAVES  31 

in  the  leaves,  with  the  carbon  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas 
absorbed  from  the  air,  and  from  these  various  elements 
thus  obtained  are  manufactured,  partly  in  the  leaves  and 
partly  elsewhere  in  the  plant,  all  the  plant  substance. 

The  leaves,  then,  are  what  we  may  call  absorbing,  excreting, 
and  assimilating  organs  :  absorbing,  because  they  take  up 
gases  from  the  atmosphere  ;  excreting,  because  they  get  rid 
of  the  superfluous  water  and  oxygen  gas ;  and  assimilating, 
because  they  take  substances  unlike  plant  substance  and 
manufacture  them  into  plant  substance  itself,  in  order  to 
repair  the  "  wear  and  tear  "  of  the  various  parts  of  the  plant 
and  in  order  to  furnish  material  for  the  formation  of  new 
parts. 

XVI.    Questions  about  Leaves. 

1 .  What  is  a  leaf  ? 

2.  What  are  the  parts  of  a  typical  leaf? 

3.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  simple  and  a  com- 

pound leaf? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  venation  ? 

5.  What  is  a  netted-veined  leaf? 

6.  What  is  a  parallel-veined  leaf? 

7.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  pinnately  and  a  pal- 

mately  compound  leaf? 

8.  Describe   the    differences    between   the   two   types   of 

netted-veined  leaves. 

9.  Describe    the    differences    between   the   two   types   of 

parallel-veined  leaves. 

10.  When  is  a  leaf  said  to  be  decompound? 

11.  What  three  sets  of  things  make  up  the  substance  of  a 

leaf? 

12.  Describe  the  epidermis. 

13.  Describe  the  green  pulp. 


32  LABORATORY   PRACTICE  CHAP.  V 

14.  Describe  the  woody  framework. 

15.  Why  is  a  leaf  an  expanded  structure? 

16.  Why  does  it  need  air  and  sunlight? 

1 7.  What  would  happen  to  a  plant  if  it  were  kept  stripped 

of  its  leaves  ?    Why  ? 


LEAVES  33 


CHAPTER  VI 

LEAVES.    II 

THE  several  leaves  studied  in  the  last  chapter  were,  we 
may  say,  typical  foliage  leaves.  They  all  possessed  distinct 
blades  and  petioles,  and  most  of  them  possessed  stipules. 
The  blades  also  possessed  distinct  upper  and  distinct  lower 
surfaces.  The  leaves  to  be  studied  in  this  chapter  differ 
from  typical  leaves  while  still  serving  as  foliage. 

I.  Take  a  piece  of  the  stem  of  a  Chrysanthemum  bearing 
several  leaves  and  notice  :  — 

1.  That  the  leaf  blades  are  attached  directly  to  the  stem, 

there  being  no  petiole.     Such  a  leaf  is  said  to  be 
sessile  or  "  sitting." 

2.  The  general  shape,  shape  of  apex,  etc. 

3.  The  venation. 

4.  Make  a  sketch. 

II.  Examine  the  leaf  of  the  Bellwort  (  Uvularia perfoliata) 
and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  general  shape,  etc. 

2.  The  venation. 

3.  The  absence  of  petiole  and  stipules. 

4.  The  clasping  base  completely  encircling  the  stem.     Such 

a  leaf  is  said  to  be  perfoliate. 
q.    Make  a  sketch  to  show  these  characters. 


34  LABORATORY  PRACTICE  CHAP,  vi 

III.  Examine  a   flowering   branch   of  one   of  the   true 
Honeysuckles  and  notice  that :  — 

1.  The  lower  leaves  are  in  pairs  and  entirely  separate. 

2.  The  leaves  toward  the  end  of  the  branch  are  also  in 

pairs  and  are  sometimes  united  around  the  stem  by 
the  growing  together  of  their  bases. 

3.  The  uppermost  pair  are  grown  completely  together. 

4.  Such  leaves  as  these  uppermost  ones  are  said  to  be  con- 

nate-perfoliate. 

5.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  branch  and  the  various  pairs  of 

leaves  to  show  these  characters. 

IV.  Examine  an  Acacia  leaf  (not  an  Acacia  with  the 
compound  leaves,  but  one  with  what  appear  to  be  simple 
leaves)  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  general  shape. 

2.  The  venation. 

3.  The  position  upon  the  stem.     It  is  attached  to  the  stem 

in  such  a  way  that  its  edges  point  up  and  down,  i.e. 
it  is  vertical  in  position. 

4.  This  vertical  attachment  shows  that  it  is  really  a  peti- 

ole (without  any  blade  at  all)  very  much  flattened, 
serving  the  purpose  of  a  blade.  Such  structures  are 
called  phyllodia.  (An  additional  proof  that  these 
phyllodia  are  flattened  petioles  is  afforded  by  the 
fact  that  seedlings  of  the  phyllodia-bearing  Acacias 
usually  have  the  first  few  phyllodia  bearing  regular 
compound  blades  at  their  tips.) 

5.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  the  phyllodia. 

V.  We  have  studied  leaves  without  stipules,  leaves  with- 
out either  petioles  or  stipules,  and  leaves  consisting  only 


CHAP.  VI  LEAVES  35 

of  a  flattened  petiole  without  a  blade.  If  a  specimen  of 
Lathyrus  Aphaca  (either  fresh  or  pressed)  can  be  obtained, 
examine  its  leaves  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  absence  of  blades ; 

2.  The  prolongation  of  the  petioles  into  tendrils;  and 

3.  The  increase  in  size  of  the  stipules  (to  make  up  for  the 

loss  of  the  blade). 

4.  Make  a  sketch  of  one  leaf. 

VI.  Many  plants  have  leaves  without  distinction  of  parts ; 
e.g.  examine  and  sketch  :  — 

1.  The  needle-shaped   leaves   of  a   Norway  Spruce   or  a 

Pine. 

2.  The  awl-shaped  and  scale-shaped  leaves  of  the  Arbor- 

Vitse  or  the  Lawson's  Cypress. 

VII.  Examine  a  rootstock  of  Iris  to  which  the  leaves  are 
attached.     Notice  that :  — 

1.  Each  leaf  stands  erect  and  presents  its  tip  to  the  sky. 

How  does  this  compare  with  the  ordinary  leaves  ? 

2.  Each  leaf  is  folded  together  lengthwise  so  that  the  upper 

surface  (or  what  corresponds  to  it)  is  inside,    fr 

3.  Make  a  sketch. 

VIII.  Examine  one  of  the  upper  leaves  of  a  Eucalyptus. 
Notice  that :  — 

1.  The  two  surfaces  are  vertical  (instead  of  horizontal). 

2.  This  is  brought  about  by  a  twisting  of  the  petiole. 

3.  Examine  the  leaf  of  a  young  Eucalyptus  and  notice  that 

it  has  a  horizontal  position  instead  of  a  vertical  one. 

4.  What  are  the  reasons  for  these  two  positions? 

5 .  Sketch  each  leaf  to  show  its  position. 


36  LABORATORY   PRACTICE  CHAP.  VI. 

IX.  Examine  a  piece  of  the  so-called  Smilax  (Myrsiphyl- 
lutri)  and  notice  :  — 

1 .  The  slender  stem. 

2.  The  expanded  leaf-like  structures.     Notice  their  shape 

and  venation. 

3.  The  delicate  scale  at  the  base  of  each  of  these  leaf-like 

structures.  This  scale  is  the  true  leaf,  and  the  ex- 
panded structure  in  its  axil  (see  §  I,  7,  of  Chapter  V) 
is  a  branch  flattened  to  serve  as  a  leaf.  A  branch 
structure  modified  thus  is  called  a  cladophyllum 
(plural  is  cladophylla) . 

4.  Make  a  sketch  of  one  cladophyllum,  its  subtending  scale- 

like  ka/a.nd  the  piece  of.  stem  upon  which  it  is  borne. 

X.  Examine  some  plants  which  have  been  grown  before 
a  window  (and  consequently  strongly  lighted  from  one  side) . 
Notice  :  — 

1.  That  the  leaves  present  their  upper  surfaces  to  the  light. 

2.  Turn  the  plants  around  and  notice,  after  a  day  or  two, 

that  the  leaves  have  turned  so  that  their  upper 
surfaces  are  again  directed  toward  the  light. 

XI.  Examine   a  plant   of  some   species   of  Oxalis   and 
notice  :  — 

1.  The  trifoliate,  palmately  compound  leaves. 

2.  The  position  of  the  leaflets  during  the  day-time. 

3.  The  position  of  the  leaflets  during  the  night-time. 

4.  Sketch  both  positions. 

5.  What  causes  the  so-called  "  sleep  "  of  plants? 

XII.  Examine  a  Sensitive  Plant  and  notice  :  — 

i.   The  character  of  the  expanded  undisturbed  leaf.   Sketch. 


LEAVES 


2.  The  method  of  folding  together  the  parts  of  a  leaf  after 

it  has  been  touched.     Sketch. 

3.  The  time  elapsing,  after  touching,  before  it  begins  to  fold 

together. 

4.  The  time  elapsing  before  the  parts  are  completely  folded 

together. 

5.  Make  sketches  to  show  these  changes. 

6.  How  long  does  it  require  to  open  again? 

XIII.  Examine  the  leaf  of  the  Orange   (or  of  the  Bar- 
berry of  New  England)  and  notice  :  — 

1.  That  the  stalk  is  flattened -and  jointed  at  the  insertion  of 

2.  The  blade. 

3.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  this. 

4.  This  joint  indicates  that  the  "  blade  "  answers  to  a  leaf- 

let of  a  compound  leaf,  and  if  we  examine  some  of 
the  nearly  related  Barberries  or  members  of  the 
Orange  family,  we  shall  find  that  the  leaves  are 
pinnately  compound  with  several  leaflets.  Such  a 
leaf  as  the  one  studied  is  called  a  tinifoliolate  com- 
pound fea/a.nd  it  is  considered  that  the  side  leaflets 
have  failed  to  develop. 

XIV.  Longevity  of  Leaves. 

1.  How  long  (i.e,  how  many  months)  do  the  leaves  of  the 

Willows,  the  Maples,  or  the  Elms  live? 

2.  How  long  do  the  leaves  of  the  Live-oaks  live?     (Take  a 

piece  of  stem  with  the  oldest  leaves  you  can  find,  cut 
it  across,  and  count  the  rings.) 

3.  How  long  do  the  leaves  of  the  Norway  Spruce,  the  various 

Pines,  or  Cypresses  live  ? 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


XV.  Defoliation  or  the  Fall  of  the  Leaf.  —  Examine  va- 
rious leaves  as  they  are  falling  or  after  they  have  fallen  and 
notice  how  they  separate  from  the  branch  which  bore  them. 

1.  The  Willows,  Elms,  Maples,  Alders,  and  Hazels.     The 

leaves  separate  from  the  stem  at  the  base  of  the 
petiole  and  fall  off,  leaving  a  clean  scar.  This  is 
characteristic  for  simple  leaves. 

2.  The  Rose  or  the  Locust-Tree,  having  pinnately  com- 

pound leaves.  The  leaflets  usually  fall  away  first, 
leaving  the  petiole  and  axis,  and  this  falls  later, 
separating  from  the  stem  at  the  base  of  the  petiole. 

3.  The  Horse-Chestnut  or  the  Buckeye,  having  palmately 

compound  leaves,  may  behave  in  either  of  two  ways. 
(ci)  The  whole  leaf  may  separate  at  the  base  of  the 

petiole  and  fall ;  and  then  the  leaflets  fall  away 

from  the  apex  of  the  petiole  ;  or 
(b)    The  leaflets  may  fall  away  from  the  petiole  while 

it  is  still  attached  to  the  tree,  the  petiole  itself 

falling  afterward. 

4.  It  may  be  seen  that  the  blade  does  not  separate  from 

the  petiole  in  simple  leaves,  but  does  in  compound 
leaves. 

5.  Notice  that  the  blade  of  the  leaf  of  the  Grape  Vine,  or 

of  the  Japanese  Creeper,  falls  away  from  the  petiole. 
This  shows  that  the  apparently  simple  leaf  of  the 
Grape  Vine,  or  of  the  Japanese  Creeper,  partakes  of 
the  nature  of  a  compound  leaf.  (Some  nearly  re- 
lated vines  and  creepers  have  compound  leaves,  and 
some  of  the  leaves  of  the  Japanese  Creeper  may  be 
compound.) 

6.  Make  sketches  and  notes. 


PHYLLOTAXY  39 


CHAPTER   VII 

PHYLLOTAXY 

PHYLLOTAXY  is  the  arrangement  of  leaves  upon  the  stem. 
Leaves  are  arranged  upon  the  stem  in  one  of  two  ways  as 
illustrated  by  Fuchsia  (§  I)  and  by  Begonia  (§  IV) 

I.  Examine  a  branch  of  some  species  of  Fuchsia  and 
notice :  — 

1.  The  number  of  leaves  at  each  node. 

2.  The  relative  arrangement  of  the  leaves  at  two  successive 

nodes. 

3.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  these  points. 

4.  The  arrangement  of  leaves  just  studied  is  a  good  example 

of  the  opposite  or  cyclical  arrangement. 

II.  Look  at   the   branch   of  Fuchsia   from  above   and 
notice  :  — 

1.  The  four  vertical  ranks  of  leaves. 

2.  Make  a  diagram  to  represent  this. 

III.  Examine  a  plant  of  the  common  Bedstraw  or  Cleavers 
(species  of  Galium)  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  number  of  leaves  (3  to  8  or  10)  at  each  node. 

2.  The  relative  arrangement  of  the^  leaves  at  two  successive 

nodes. 


40  LABORATORY   PRACTICE  CHAP.  Vlt 

3.  Look  at  a  branch  from  above  and  notice  the  number  of 

vertical  ranks. 

4.  Make  sketches. 

5.  This  is  also  an  example  of  the  cyclical  arrangement. 

When  there  are  more  than  two  leaves  arranged  in  a 
circle  about  a  node,  it  is  said  to  be  a  whorl. 

IV.  Examine  a  branch  of  some  species  of  Begonia  having 
a  conspicuous  stem  above  ground.     Notice  :  — 

1 .  The  number  of  leaves  at  each  node. 

2.  The  relative  position  of  the  leaves  at  two  successive 

nodes. 

3.  Draw  a  line  from  one  leaf  to  the  next,  winding  around 

the  stem,  and  continue  this  line  in  a  direct  curve  to 
the  next,  and  so  on,  until  a  leaf  is  reached  directly 
above  (i.e.  vertically)  the  one  from  which  the  line 
starts.  Notice  :  — 

4.  That  this  line  is  a  spiral. 

5.  The  number  of  leaves  through  whose  bases  it  passes  be- 

fore it  arrives  at  the  leaf  immediately  above  the  one 
from  which  we  started.  (In  this  we  count  the  leaf  at 
which  we  start,  but  not  the  one  at  which  we  end.) 

6.  The  number  of  turns  of  the  spiral. 

7.  Make  a  sketch  or  diagram  to  show  this  spiral. 

8.  The   Begonia  illustrates   what   is  known   as  the  spiral 

arrangement.     (Compare  it  with  the  cyclical?) 

V.  If  we  view  the  stem  and  leaves  of  the  Begonia  from 
above,  we  shall  see  that  the  leaves  are  arranged  not  only  in 
this  one  spiral  rank,  but  also  in  vertical  ranks  (see  also  §§  II 
and  III,  3).     Notice  that,  in  this  case,  there  are  two  vertical 
ranks.     For  this  reason  such  an  arrangement  as  this  is  called 
a  two- ranked  arrangement. 


PHYLLOTAXY 


VI.  It  is  found  very  convenient  to  represent  any  of  the 
alternate  or  spiral  arrangement  of  leaves  such  as  the  Begonia 
by  a  common  fraction.     The  number  of  turns  of  the  spiral 
is  taken  for  the  numerator,  and  the  number  of  leaves  passed 
through  for  the  denominator.     What  would  be  the  fraction 
for  the  Begonia? 

VII.  Take  a  young  plant  of  the  White  Hellebore  (  Vera- 
trum  viride)  and  notice  :  — 

1 .  The  three  vertical  ranks. 

2.  That  the  spiral  makes  one  revolution  and  passes  through 

three  leaves  before  it  reaches  the  one  directly  above 
the  one  from  which  it  started. 

3.  What  fraction  will  express  the  phyllotaxy  of  this  three- 

ranked  arrangement? 

4.  Make  sketches  of  the  White  Hellebore,  including  views 

from  the  side  and  from  above. 

VIII.  Examine  the  arrangement  of  the  leaves  upon  a  ver- 
tical branch  of  the  Apple  or  Pear  Tree,  noticing :  — 

1.  The  number  of  leaves  at  each  node. 

2.  The  number  of  leaf-insertions  passed  through  to  reach 

one  exactly  above  the  one  from  which  you  start. 

3.  The  number  of  revolutions  of  the  spiral. 

4.  Make  a  diagram  to  show  this. 

5.  What  is  the  fraction  representing  this  arrangement? 

6.  What  should  the  number  of  vertical  ranks  be? 

7.  Do  you  notice  any  twisting  of  the  internodes  so  as  to 

make  the  determination  of  the  phyllotaxy  difficult? 

IX.   Examine  a  vertical  branch  of  Holly  or  of  Pittosporum 
i .   Find  the  number  of  vertical  ranks. 


42  LABORATORY   PRACTICE  CHAP,  vi 


2.  The  number  of  leaves  through  which  the  spiral  passes 

to  the  leaf  directly  above  the  initial  leaf. 

3.  The  number  of  revolutions  of  the  spiral. 

4.  The  fraction  expressing  the  phyllotaxy. 

X.  Arrange  the  fractions  found  thus  far  in  a  series,  and 
notice  that  we  may  determine  the  third  one  found,  by  adding 
together  the  numerators  of  the  first  and  second  to  make  its 
numerator,  and  the  denominators  of  the  first  and  second  to 
make  its  denominator.     Notice  also  that  the  fourth  may  be 
formed  in  the  same  way  from  the  second  and  third. 

What  would  be  the  fifth,  sixth,  etc.,  of  this  series? 

XI.  Examine  a  cone  of  the  Norway  Spruce  or  of  some 
species  of  Pine.    Notice  :  — 

1.  The  scales  of  the  cone  (being  really  modified  leaves)  are 

closely  packed  together,  and  it  is  difficult  to  determine 
the  original  spiral. 

2.  Two  series  of  secondary  spirals,  however,  appear,  one 

series  running  from  left  to  right,  and  the  other  series 
from  right  to  left. 

3.  Count  the  number  of  secondary  spirals  running  from  left 

to  right. 

4.  Count  the  number  of  spirals  running  from  right  to  left. 

5 .  Beginning  with  some  scale  near  the  base,  number  (in  ink) 

this  scale  i. 

6.  Number  the  next  scale  in  the  same  secondary  spiral  run- 

ning to  the  right  i  plus  the  number  found  in  3,  the 
next  one  this  number  plus  the  number  found  in  3,  and 
so  on. 

7.  Beginning  again  with  scale  number  i,  number  the  next 

scale  in  the  secondary  spiral  running  to  the  left  i  plus 
the  number  of  spirals  found  in  4,  and  so  on. 


PHYLLOTAXY 


8.  Continue  this  numbering,  beginning  with  any  numbered 

scale,  until  the  majority  of  the  scales  of  the  cone  are 
numbered. 

9.  Take  the  scale  next  above  scale  number  i  in  a  vertical 

line,  subtract  i  from  the  number  upon  this  scale,  and 
the  result  will  be  the  number  of  leaves  passed  through 
in  going  from  one  leaf  to  the  one  directly  above  the 
one  from  which  we  started.  This,  of  course,  will  be 
the  denominator  of  the  fraction. 

10.  Verify  this  number  several  times,  taking  other  numbered 

scales  for  starting-points.  (The  accuracy  of  this 
method  may  be  proven  upon  cones  with  few  scales 
such  as  those  of  the  American  Larch.) 

11.  The  numerator  will  be  the  smaller  number  of  secondary 

spirals. 

XII.  Examine  all  the  cones  of  different  kinds  you  can  get, 
and  determine  the  phyllotaxy  of  each.     In  this  way,  arrange- 
ments represented  by  the  fractions  |,  ^,  and  ^  may  be 
found,  and  sometimes  ||  and  |4  may  be  made  out. 

Compare  these  fractions  in  the  same  way  as  in  §  X. 

XIII.  Examine  an  erect  branch  of  some  species  of  Maple 
and  notice  :  — 

1 .  The  regularly  opposite  leaves. 

2.  That  the  pairs  of  leaves  upon  adjacent  nodes  are  decus- 

sate, i.e.  are  at  right  angles  to  one  another. 

3.  The  petioles  of  both  leaves  in  each  pair  are  equal  or  very 

nearly  so. 

4.  Look  down  upon  the  top  of  the  stem  and  notice  the 

four  regular  vertical  ranks. 

5.  Make  sketches  to  show  these  points. 


LABORATORY  PRACTICE 


XIV.  Compare  with  the  preceding  the  arrangement  of 
leaves  upon  a  branch  of  the  same  Maple  which  has  grown 
out  in  a  horizontal  direction.     Notice  that :  — 

1 .  The  leaves  are  also  opposite. 

2.  They  do  not  decussate,  for  the  internodes  are  twisted. 

3.  The  petioles  in  the  different  pairs  are  very  unequal ;  while 

that  of  one  leaf  remains  short,  that  of  the  other  often 
becomes  very  long  to  carry  its  leaf  blade  out  from 
under  some  other  leaf  blade,  in  order  to  obtain  its 
share  of  light  and  air. 

4.  The  effect  thus  produced  (when  seen  from  above)  of  a 

green  surface,  made  up  of  leaf  blades  fitted  together, 
is  called  a  leaf  mosaic. 

5.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  this. 

6.  Notice  the  same  thing  in  the  phyllotaxy  of  the  horizontal 

branches  of  other  trees. 

XV.  Twisting  or  Torsion  of   the  Internodes  has  been 
noticed  in  one  or  two  cases.     This  tends  to  make  it  difficult 
to  determine  the  phyllotaxy  by  bringing  the  leaves  away 
from  their  proper  positions.     It  is  usually  seen  best  upon 
horizontal  branches  of  the  Forsythia  or  of  young  Eucalyptus 
trees.     Notice  :  — 

1.  The  opposite  leaves. 

2.  They  are  arranged  very  nearly  in  two  ranks. 

3.  Each   internode,  as  shown   by  the   lines  or  angles,  is 

twisted  through  a  right  angle. 

4.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  this. 

XVI.  Sometimes  vertical  ranks  of  leaves  are  made  spiral 
by  such  torsion  of  the  internodes. 

Examine  the  Pandanus  or  Screw  Pine  of  the  conservato- 
ries and  notice  :  — 


PHYLLOTAXY 


1.  The  three  ranks  of  sessile  leaves. 

2.  The  very  short  internodes. 

3.  The  spiral  course  of  each  rank. 

4.  This  seems,  at  least,  an  entirely  different  thing  from  the 

secondary  spirals  of  the  cones  we  have  examined. 

XVII.  Examine  branches  of  some  species  of  Pine  and  of 
the  Larch  or  Deodar  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  leaves,  arranged  in  small  bunches  ex  fascicles.  (Two 

to  five  in  the  Pines,  a  larger  number  in  the  Larch 
and  Deodar.) 

2.  These  leaves  really  belong  to  short  branches  whose  inter- 

nodes  are  so  short  as  not  to  be  visible. 

3.  Make  sketches  of  ^^fasciculate  leaves. 

XVIII.  Questions  upon  Phyllotaxy. 

1.  What  is  phyllotaxy? 

2.  In  what  two  different  sets  of  ways  may  leaves  be  ar- 

ranged upon  the  stem? 

3.  What  name  do  we  give  to  each?     Why? 

4.  Describe  some  varieties  of  the  cyclical  arrangement. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  the  spiral  arrangement? 

6.  How  may  any  spiral  arrangement  be  expressed  in  the 

form  of  a  fraction  ? 

7.  Give  the  series  beginning  ^-,  \,  etc. 

.    8.    How  does  torsion  of  the  internodes  affect  the  phyllotaxy  ? 
9.   Describe  the  differences  between  the  arrangement  upon 

vertical  and  upon  horizontal  branches. 
10.   What  is  meant  by  fasciculate  leaves?     Give  and  explain 

examples. 

n.   Why  should  there  be  such  a  variety  in  the  phyllotaxy 
of  the  different  plants? 


LABORATORY    PRACTICE 


CHAPTER  VIII 

BUDS 

I.  BUDS  may  be  defined  as  incipient  shoots.    What  does 
this  mean  ? 

II.  Examine  a  leafless  branch  of  Beech,  Birch,  or  Alder, 
and  notice  the  buds. 

1.  There  is  a  single  terminal  bud. 

2.  The  rest  of  the  buds  are  lateral,  i.e.  situated  upon  the 

sides  of  the  stem. 

3.  The  lateral  buds  are  placed  just  above  a  leaf-scar,  so 

that  they  occupy  the  vertex  of  the  angle  formed  by 
the  junction  of  the  leaf  with  the  stem.  This  angle  is 
called  the  axil  of  the  leaf  and  such  buds  are  called 
axillary  buds. 

4.  Sketch  a  portion  of  the  branch  so  as  to  show  both  axil- 

lary and  terminal  buds  ;  and  notice  that  the  terminal 
bud  does  not  exceed  the  axillary  buds  very  much  in 
size. 

III.  Examine  a  leafless  branch  of  Walnut  or  Butternut 
and  notice  the  buds. 

1.  The  terminal bud 'is  larger  than  the  lateral  buds. 

2.  There  are  several  (2-4)  buds  above  each  leaf-scar. 

3.  The  one  directly  in  the  axil,  i.e.  nearest  the  leaf-scar,  is 

usually  very  small.     This  is  the  axillary  bud. 


BUDS  47 


4.  The  buds  above  it  are  larger.  They  are  called  accessory 
buds  (i.e.  additional  buds).  They  are  also  said  to 
be  superposed  (i.e.  placed  one  above  the  other). 

5..  The  Walnut  and  Butternut,  therefore,  have  three  kinds 
of  buds  as  classified  by  position:  i,  terminal buds ; 
2,  axillary  buds,  and  3,  superposed  accessory  buds. 

IV.  What  difference  does  this  make  as  regards  the  branch- 
ing of  the  Walnut  or  Butternut  Tree  ? 

V.  Examine  a  leafless  branch  of  the  Maple  and  notice 
the  buds. 

1.  The  large  terminal  bud. 

2.  The  upper  lateral  buds,  in  threes,  above  the  leaf-scars. 

Distinguish 

3.  The  middle  axillary  bud. 

4.  The  accessory  bud  at  each  side. 

5.  The  accessory  buds  of  the  Maple,  being  arranged  side 

by  side  with  the  axillary  buds  in  a  horizontal  line,  are 
called  collateral  accessory  buds. 

6.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  the  collateral  accessory  buds. 

VI.  Examine  the  terminal  buds  of  the  Buckeye  or  any 
of  those  of  the  Currant.     (They  are  in  best  condition  for 
this  when  just  bursting  open  in  the  spring.)     Notice  :  — 

1.  The  overlapping  brown   scales  which   cover  the   bud. 

Buds  with  such  coverings  are  called  scaly  buds. 

2.  Pick  off  the  scales  one  by  one,  beginning  with  the  lowest, 

until    well-developed   leaves    are    reached,  arrange 
them,  in  order,  in  a  row,  and  notice  :  — 

3.  That  the  inner  scales  are  less  brown,  larger,  and  more 

of  a  greenish  color. 


48  LABORATORY   PRACTICE  CHAP,  vin 

4.  That  the  innermost  have  small  structures  at  their  tips, 

shaped  something  like  the  blades  of  ordinary  leaves. 

5.  Draw  the  series. 

6.  From  this  series  we  learn  that  the  bud  scales  really  rep- 

resent  altered  leaves,  are,  as  we  say,  homologous  with 
leaves ;  and  not  only  this,  but  they  are  really  flattened 
petioles.  Q(jdi  farwn*^ 

VII.  Examine  the  scales  of  opening  buds  of  the  Lilac  or 
of  a  Pittosporum  in  the  same  way. 

1.  With  what  part  of  the  leaf  are  these  bud  scales  homolo- 

gous? 

2.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  series. 

VIII.  Examine  the  scales  in  opening  buds  of  the  Tulip 
Tree,  the  Fig,  the  Beech,  or  the  Hazel.     Notice  :  — 

1.  That  they  are  in  pairs  at  the  base  of  each  petiole. 

2.  With  what  part  of  the  leaf  are  these  scales  homologous? 

3.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  series. 

IX.  Examine  the  terminal  buds  of  the  Walnut,  Butternut, 
or  Witch  Hazel.     Notice  :  — 

1.  The  absence  of  scales. 

2.  These  buds  are  called  naked  buds. 

3.  Make  a  sketch. 

X.  Examine   several   terminal   and   lateral   buds  of  the 
Buckeye,  Maple,  or  Lilac,  cutting  them  into  halves,  longi- 
tudinally.    Notice  :  — 

1.  That  some  of  them  contain  leaves  only.     They  are  leaf 

buds. 

2.  That  some  contain  both  leaves  and  flowers.     They  are 

mixed  buds. 


CHAP,  vni  BUDS  49 

3.  That  some  contain  flowers  only.     They  are  flowe r  buds. 

4.  Make  sketches  of  the  cut  surfaces  in  each  case. 

XI.  The  buds  which  we  have  been  studying,  have  all  been 
winter  buds,  formed  towards  the  end  of  the  season  of  growth 
and  then  resting  before  expanding  to  furnish  the  shoots  of 
the  next  season.     But  we  may  find  buds  at  the  end  of  any 
stem  or  branch  which  is  actively  growing. 

Examine  the  end  of  a  branch  of  some  actively  growing 
plant,  such  as  a  Sunflower,  a  Fuchsia,  a  Bean,  or  a  Pea, 
and  notice :  — 

1.  The  smaller  or   larger  bunch  of  leaves,  more  or  less 

closely  folded  together.     This  is  a  vegetative  bud. 

2.  Watch  this  or  any  winter  bud  as  it  unfolds  and  notice  :  — 

3.  The  lengthening  internodes  separating  the  leaves  from 

one  another. 

4.  The  unfolding  and  expanding  of  the  leaves. 

XII.  The   buds  which  we  have  been  studying  thus  far 
have  all  be«n  regularly  placed  either  at  the  top  of  the  stem 
or  upon  the  sides,  in  or  near  the  axil  of  a  leaf. 

Sometimes  buds  appear  upon  the  internodes  of  the  stem, 
upon  the  roots,  or  even  upon  the  leaves.  Such  buds  appear- 
ing out  of  the  ordinary  positions  are  called  adventitious  buds. 

1.  Examine  the  buds  which  appear  upon  a  Sweet  Potato  (a 

root)  which  has  been  kept  partly  immersed  in  water 
for  two  or  three  weeks.  They  are  adventitious  buds. 
Sketch. 

2.  Examine  the  buds  which  appear  in  the  indentations  of  a 

leaf  of  Bryophyllum  (a  not  uncommon  greenhouse 
plant)  which  has  been  cut  off  and  pinned  up  against 
the  wall  for  a  week  or  two.  They  are  adventitious 
buds.  Sketch. 


So  LABORATORY   PRACTICE  CHAP.  VIII 

3.   Adventitious  buds  appear  upon  the  older  stems  of  many 
plants  after  they  have  been  injured. 

XIII.  Examine  the  plumule  of  a  well-soaked  Bean.     It  is 
the  first  bud. 

XIV.  Classification  of  Buds. 

POSITION.  COVERINGS.    CONTENTS. 

Terminal.  scaly.       leaf. 

axillary-  naked,     flower. 


Lateral. 
Adventitious. 


accessory. 


f  superposed. 
\  collateral. 


mixed. 


XV.    Questions  about  Buds. 

1.  What  is  a  bud? 

2.  What  is  the  difference  between  an  ordinary  vegetative 

bud  and  a  winter  bud  ? 

3.  How  do  we  classify  buds  as  regards  their  positions  on 

the  stem? 

4.  As  regards  their  coverings  ? 

5.  As  regards  their  contents  ? 

6.  What  are  bud-scales  homologous  with  ?     Explain  several 

cases. 

7.  What  do  buds  develop  into  ? 

8.  How  may  we  tell  this  year,  how  many  buds  (and  branches 

if  they  all  develop)  will  be  provided  for  next  year  ? 

9.  What  is  the  axil  of  a  leaf? 

10.  How  may  we  tell  a  branch-structure  from  a  leaf-struc- 

ture by  attending  to  its  position  in  connection  with 
the  axil  ? 

11.  What  are  adventitious  buds? 

12.  Where  may  they  occur? 

13.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  accessory  buds  in  the  But- 

ternut ?     In  the  Maple  ? 


PRjEFOLIATION 


CHAPTER   IX 

PRjEFOLIATION 

I.  Freefoliation  (called  also  vernation}  refers  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  different  leaves  are  packed  away  in  the  bud. 
We  may  regard  the  scaly  winter  bud  as  a  sort  of  trunk  full 
of  foliage  with  which  the  branch  or  stem  is  to  be  clothed 
next  season.     The  ordinary  vegetative  and  naked  buds  are 
merely  bundles  of  clothing.     As  is  the  case  with  garments 
put  away  for  future  use,  each  leaf  must  be  packed  in  with 
the  others  so  as  to  occupy  as  little  space  as  possible.     Con- 
sequently each  leaf  is,  in  most  cases,  carefully  folded  or 
rolled  up  in  some  particular  way.     A  short  study  of  the 
different  ways  adopted  by  different  plants  is  very  instructive. 
The  botanist  has  a  special  term  to  indicate  each  particular 
method. 

II.  Examine  the  terminal  bud  of  the  Lilac  (one  which 
is  just  unfolding  will  be  best  suited  for  the  purpose).     Re- 
move the  bud-scales  and  notice  :  — 

1.  That  the  leaves  are  not  folded,  but  lie  flat,  one  against 

another. 

2.  The  small  size  of  these  young  leaves  as  compared  with 

an  adult  leaf. 

3.  Cut  across  the  middle  of  such  a  bud  and  examine  the 

cut  surface  with  a  lens.     Make  a  sketch,   showing 
the  way  in  which  the  leaves  fit  together. 
\.   These  leaves  are  s\m\i\y  plane. 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


III.  Examine  a  large  opening  bud  of  a  Maple  or  Currant, 
and  after  removing  the  bud-scales  notice  :  — 

1.  The  short  petioles  of  the  young  leaves. 

2.  The  blades  folded  together  so  as  to  make  several  longi- 

tudinal plaits  or  folds. 

3.  Cut  across  the  middle  of  a  bud,  examine  the  cut  surface 

with  a  lens,  and  make  a  sketch,  showing 

4.  The  relative  positions  of  the  folded  leaf-blades  and 

5.  The  method  of  folding  in  each  case. 

6.  Such  praefoliation  as  this,  is  called  plicate  or  plaited. 

IV.  Examine  a  terminal  opening  bud  of  a  Magnolia  and 
after  removing  the  bud-scales,  notice  :  — 

1.  The   young  leaves,  folded  together   along  the  midrib, 

bringing  the  inner  surfaces  together. 

2.  Cut  across  the  middle  of  a  bud,  examine  the  cut  surface 

with  a  lens,  and  make  a  sketch,  showing 

3.  The  relative  arrangement  of  the  folded  leaf-blades  and 

4.  The  method  of  folding  in  each  case. 

5.  Such  prsefoliation  as  this,  is  called  conduplicate. 

V.  Examine  the  opening  buds  of  the  Tulip  Tree  in  the 
same  way  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  conduplicate  blades. 

2.  That  the  blades  are  also  bent  forward  upon  the  petioles. 

3.  Make  a  sketch  of  a  single  leaf  to  show  these  points. 

4.  The  leaves  of  the  bud  of  the  Tulip  Tree,  then,  show  not 

only  conduplicate  but  also  reclinate  pr&foliation. 

VI.  Examine  a  large  opening  bud  of  the  Cherry  or  of 
the  Japanese  Quince,  and  after  removing  the  bud-scales, 
notice  :  — 


PR^FOLIATION 


1.  That   each   leaf-blade   is  rolled  up,  beginning   at  one 

margin. 

2.  Cut  across  the  middle  of  a  bud,  examine  the  cut  surface 

with  a  lens  and  make  a  sketch,  showing 

3.  The  relative  arrangement  of  the  folded  leaf-blades  and 

4.  The  method  of  folding  in  each  case. 

5.  The  prsefoliation  of  the  leaves  just  studied  is  said  to  be 

convolute.     (This  is  also  well  shown  by  the  opening 
leaves  of  the  Calla.) 

VII.  Examine   the   opening   leaves   of  the   Violet   and 
notice :  — 

1.  That  each  margin  of  the  leaf  is  rolled  inward  until  the 

two  rolls  thus  formed  meet  at  the  central  line. 

2.  Cut  a  leaf  across  the  middle,  examine  the  cut  surface 

with  the  lens,  and  make  a  sketch. 

3.  This  is  called  involute  prcefolia tion. 

VIII.  Examine  the  opening  leaves  of  an  Azalea  or  of 
a  Dock   (the  species  with  large  leaves  are  the  best)  and 
notice  : — 

1.  That  each  margin  of  the  leaf  is  rolled  backward  until  the 

two  rolls  thus  formed  meet  in  the  middle  line. 

2.  Cut  across  the  middle  of  a  leaf,  examine  the  cut  surface 

with  a  lens,  and  make  a  sketch. 

3.  This  is  called  revolute  prafoliation. 

IX.  Examine  the  opening  leaf  of  a  Fern  and  notice  :  — 

1.  That  the  apex  of  the  leaf  is  curved  downwards  and  in- 

wards and  that  a  scroll  is  thus  formed,  looking  like  a 
crozier. 

2.  Make  a  sketch  from  the  side. 

3.  This  is  called  circinate  prafolia tion. 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


X.    Questions  upon  Praefoliation. 

1.  What  is  praefoliation  ? 

2.  Why  should  there  be  different  kinds  of  prsefoliation  ? 

3.  What  kinds  of  praefoliation  are  there  ? 

4.  Which  part  of  the  leaf  is  generally  concerned  in  prgefoli- 

ation? 


PROTECTION  55 


CHAPTER   X 

PROTECTION 

THE  plant  finds  itself  exposed  to  numerous  enemies,  and 
many  peculiarities  of  habit  and  structure  assist  directly  in 
protecting  the  plant  against  them.  For  the  present  we  need 
consider  only  the  ways  in  which  the  plants  protect  them- 
selves against  the  attacks  of  those  animals  which  eat  its 
substance,  either  grazing  animals,  or  insects  and  their  larvae, 
such  as  caterpillars  and  the  like.  We  are  to  notice  not  only 
the  particular  means  employed,  but  also  which  of  the  three 
primitive  organs  (i.e.  root,  stem,  or  leaf)  of  the  plants  is 
modified,  in  each  case,  to  provide  the  means. 

I.  Examine    a    branch   of  the    Orange   or  Thorn   and 

notice  :  — 

1.  The  stout  thorns,  and 

2.  The  relation  of  each  to  the  adjacent  leaf  (or  leaf-scar  if 

the  leaves  are  not  present). 

3.  Make  a  sketch  of  a  portion  of  the  branch  with  one  thorn 

and  its  adjacent  leaf. 

4.  Bo  these  thorns  represent  stem-,  leaf-,  or  root-structures? 

5.  Write  down  your  answer  and  the  reasons  for  it. 

II.  Examine  a  branch  of  the  Barberry,  the  Gooseberry, 
or  the  Currant,  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  weak  spines,  and 

2.  The  relation  of  each  to  the  adjacent  leaf  or  bud. 


56  LABORATORY    PRACTICE  CHAP.  X 

3.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  this. 

4.  Do  these  spines  represent  stem-,  leaf-,  or  root-structures  ? 

5.  Write  down  your  answer  and  the  reasons  for  it. 

III.  Examine   a   branch  of  the  Locust  Tree  or  of  the 
Spiny  Acacia  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  pairs  of  spines  and 

2.  The  relation  of  each  to  the  adjacent  leaf  (or  leaf-scars  if 

the  leaves  are  not  present). 

3.  Make  a  sketch  to  illustrate  this. 

4.  Do  these  spines  represent  stem-,  leaf-,  or  root-structures? 

5.  Can  you  state  even  more  exactly  just  what  particular 

structures  they  represent? 

6.  Write  down  your  answers,  and  the  reasons  for  them. 

IV.  Examine  branches  of  the  Rose  or  of  Brambles  (Black- 
berry, Raspberry,  Thimbleberry,  etc.)  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  prickles,  and 

2.  Their  relations  to  the  leaves  (or  leaf-scars). 

3.  Make  a  sketch  to  represent  this. 

4.  Cut   one   into   two   halves   longitudinally,  and    make   a 

sketch. 

5.  Do    these    prickles    represent    stem-,    leaf-,    or    root- 

structures  ? 

6.  Write  down  your  answer,  and  give  your  reasons  for  it. 

V.  Examine  a  leaf  of  the  Thistle  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  numerous  sharp  spines  upon  each  leaf. 

2.  Make  a  sketch  of  this  leaf. 

3.  What  other  leaves  can  you  think  of,  that  are  protected 

in  the  same  way?     Write  down  the  list. 

VI.  Examine  the  leaves  and  stems  of  some  Buttercups, 
Wormwood,  Mayweed,  or  Eschscholtzia,  and  notice  :  — 


PROTECTION  57 


1.  That  there  are  no  thorns,  spines,  or  prickles  to  protect 

the  plant. 

2.  Bite  into  a  leaf  or  stem,  and  taste  the  juice.     Describe 

the  taste. 

3.  Offer,  at  some  time  when  you  can,  some  of  these  plants 

to  a  cow,  and  make  notes  of  her  actions. 

4.  Observe  whether  cattle  readily  eat  these  plants  in  the 

pastures,  or  whether  they  leave  them  untouched. 

VII.  Mention  any  plants  found  in  your  vicinity  which 
have  poisonous  juices,  i.e.  either  to  the  touch  or  when  eaten 
by  men  or  by  cattle. 

VIII.  Examine   the  leaves   and   stems  of  the  common 
Nettle  and  describe  how  this  plant  protects  itself. 

IX.  Examine   the   very  woolly  leaves  of  the   Common 
Mullein.     Cut  it  across  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The   thick   covering   of  white    hairs   on   each   surface. 

Examine  with  the  lens. 

2.  Make  a  sketch  of  one  of  the  cut  surfaces  to  show  this. 

3.  How  may  this  protect  the  leaf  against  insects  or  even 

grazing  animals. 

X.  Mention   and   describe   many  other  ways   in  which 
plants  protect  their  foliage  and  tender  stems  from  being 
eaten ;  such  as,  by  placing  it  above  their  reach  (consider  the 
giraffe  as  an  animal   especially  adapted   to  feed   on  such 
plants),  or  by  growing  too  close  to  the  ground,  etc. 

XI.  (a)  Do  plants  need  to  protect  themselves  against 

any  other  enemies  than  grazing  animals?     If 
so,  from  what?  and  how? 

(<£)  Sum  up,  briefly,  the  different  ways  by  which 
plants  protect  their  foliage  and  stems  from 
being  eaten. 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


CHAPTER  XI 

STORAGE 

MANY  plants  arise  from  the  seed,  develop  stem,  leaves, 
flowers,  and  seeds,  and  die  within  the  same  twelve  months  in 
which  they  began  their  life.  Such  are  the  common  plants 
which  we  call  annuals.  Other  plants  live  on  from  year  to 
year  and  produce  successive  crops  of  flowers  and  seeds. 
Such  are  the  plants  called  biennials  and  perennials.  Plants 
living  merely  for  a  single  year  provide  only  for  their  off- 
spring in  maturing  suitable  seeds,  but  plants  which  live  for 
more  than  one  year  store  away  reserve  materials  which  are 
used  for  the  growth  of  the  succeeding  year  or  years.  In 
this  way  plants  living  on  indefinitely  are  using  this  year  the 
materials  which  they  stored  up  last  year,  and  are  storing  up 
materials  for  use  next  year. 

The  parts  of  the  plant  in  which  the  materials  are  stored 
are  usually  very  noticeably  thickened.  If  we  examine  thin 
sections  of  these  parts  under  the  lenses  of  a  compound 
microscope  and  apply  the  proper  tests,  we  shall  find  that 
these  storehouses  of  the  plant  contain  starch,  sugar,  oils, 
and  various  albuminous  substances. 

I.   Take  a  Cactus  and  examine,  noticing :  — 

1.  The  much  thickened  stem  and 

2.  The  leaves,  reduced  to  small  spines. 

3.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  plant  showing  these  features. 


CHAP.  XI  STORAGE  59 

4.  In  what  sorts  of  countries  or  in  what  sorts  of  places  do 

Cacti  grow? 

5.  How  does  this  explain  the  much  thickened  stem  and  lack 

of  leaves? 

6.  Of  what  use  are  the  spines  to  the  Cactus  ? 

II.  Take  a  plant  of  the  Agave  or  Century  Plant  and 
notice  :  — 

1.  The  short  stem. 

2.  The  stout  thickened  leaves. 

3.  Make  a  sketch  of  this  plant. 

4.  How  often  does  the  Century  Plant  blossom? 

5.  What  happens  to  the  plant  after  blossoming? 

6.  Find  out  whatever  you  can  about  the  Pulque,  manufac- 

tured by  the  Mexicans  from  the  juice  of  the  Agave. 

7.  In  what  sorts  of  countries  are  Agaves  found? 

8.  Loosen  the  epidermis  of  one  of  the  leaves  with  a  knife 

and  peel  off  a  piece.     Notice  its  thickness  and  firm- 
ness.    What  is  the  reason  for  this? 

9.  How  does  the  Agave  protect  itself  against  grazing  ani- 

mals?    Why  should  this  be  necessary?    '/ 
&//  <U*~^-    ^  \iw*<s4i*~~f  -     I 

III.  Examine  a  plant  of  Iris  which  has  been  removed 
carefully  from  the  soil  in  which  it  was  growing.     Notice  :  — 

1.  The  thickened,  horizontal,  underground  portion  and 

2.  The  transverse  scars.     What  caused  them  ? 

3.  Is  this  thickened  portion,  root,  stem,  or  leaf? 

4.  Write  down  your  answer  and  give  your  reasons  for  it. 

5.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  Iris. 


IV.   Take  a  Potato  and  examine  it,  noticing  :  — 

1.  Its  general  size,  shape,  and  color. 

2.  Does  the  Potato  grow  above  or  below  ground? 


60  LABORATORY   PRACTICE  CHAP.  XI 

3.  What  sort  of  plant-structures   are  the  "  eyes "  of  the 

Potato?     Why? 

4.  At  what  point  was  the  Potato  attached  to  the  rest  of  the 

plant  ? 

5.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  Potato. 

6.  Is  the  Potato  stem,  root,  or  leaf? 

7.  Write  down  your  answer  and  give  your  reasons  for  it. 

8.  The  Potato  is  a  good  example  of  a  tuber.     Write  down 

the  best  definition  for  a  tuber  which  you  can  find. 

V.  Examine   the   conn  or  solid'  btilb  of  a  Gladiolus  or 
Brodisea  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  general  shape,  size,  and  color. 

2.  The  roots  (or  remains  of  them)  from  the  lower  surface. 

3.  The  buds  (or  leaves  and  flowers)  from  the  upper  surface. 

4.  Make  a  sketch  of  one  corm. 

5.  Is  the  corm  situated  above  or  below  the  surface  of  the 

ground  during  the  life  of  the  plant  ? 

VI.  Cut  the  corm  into  two  longitudinal  halves.     Examine 
one  of  the  cut  surfaces  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  thin  outer  skin,  separate  from 

2.  The  solid  inner  portion. 

3.  The  buds  (or  leaves  and  flower  stems)  at  the  upper 

portion. 

4.  The  roots  coming  off  from  the  upper  portion. 

5.  Make  a  sketch  of  one  of  the  cut  surfaces  and  label  care- 

'   fully  the  different  parts. 

6.  Is  the  corm  stem,  root,  or  leaf  ? 

7.  Write  down  your  answer  and  the  reasons  for  it. 

VII.  Take  a  bulb  of  some  Lily  and  examine  it,  noticing :  — 
i.    The  general  shape,  size,  and  color. 


STORAGE 


2.  The  roots,  all  from  the  lower  end. 

3.  The  thick,  pointed,  fleshy  scales  which  make  up  the 

greater  part  of  the  bulb. 

4.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  Lily-bulb  as  seen  from  one  side. 

5.  Is  the  bulb  of  the  Lily  situated  above  or  below  the  ground 

during  the  life  of  the  plant? 

VIII.  Cut  the  bulb  of  a  Lily  into  two  longitudinal  halves. 
Examine  a  cut  surface  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  small  solid  piece  at  the  base  from  which  the  roots 

are  given  off.     Is  this  root,  stem,  or  leaf  ? 

2.  The  cut  surfaces  of  the  separate  scales. 

3.  The  bud  (or  leaves  and  stem)  at  the  top  of  (i). 

4.  What  plant-parts  do  the  scales  represent? 

5.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  cut  surface  to  show  these  parts. 

6.  What  plant-parts,  then,  does  the  Lily-bulb  represent? 

7.  The  Lily- bulb  represents  what  are  called  scaly  bulbs. 

IX.  Examine    the    bulb   of  a   Hyacinth   or   an   Onion. 
Notice  :  — 

1.  The  general  shape,  size,  and  color. 

2.  The  roots  from  the  lower  side. 

3.  Make  a  sketch  of  this  bulb. 

4.  Is  the  bulb  of  the  Hyacinth  or  the  Onion  situated  above 

or  below  the  ground  during  the  life  of  the  plant? 

X.  Cut  the  Hyacinth  or  the  Onion  into  two  longitudinal 
halves.     Examine  one   of  the   cut   surfaces   carefully   and 
notice  :  — 

1 .  The  small  solid  piece  at  the  base  from  which  the  roots  arise. 

2.  Is  this  stem,  root,  or  leaf  ? 

3.  The  narrow,  curved  layers  which  make  up  the  greater 

part  of  the  substance. 


62  LABORATORY   PRACTICE  CHAP,  xi 

4.  What  do  these  layers  represent? 

5.  The  bud  or  young  leaves  at  the  very  centre. 

6.  Make  a  sketch  of  one  of  the  cut  surfaces. 

XI.  Cut  a  bulb  of  the  Hyacinth  or  the  Onion  across  the 
middle.     Examine  one  of  the  cut  surfaces  and  notice  :  — 

1 .  The  concentric  arrangement  of  the  coats  and 

2.  How  closely  they  are  applied  one  to  the  other. 

3.  The   Hyacinth   and   Onion   represent  what   are   called 

tunicated  bulbs. 

XII.  i .   How  may  we  distinguish  between  a  corm  and  a 
bulb  ? 

2.  Write  down  the  best  definition  you  can  find  for  each. 

3.  How  may  we  distinguish  between  tunicated  and  scaly 

bulbs  ? 

4.  Examine  the  so-called  bulbs  of  the  Tuberose,  the  Tulip, 

the  Star-of-Bethlehem,  the  Soap- Root,  the  Dog-tooth 
Violet,  and  any  others  obtainable,  and  name  each 
correctly. 

XIII.  Take  a  Radish,  Carrot,  or  Beet,  examine  the  un- 
derground portion  carefully,  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  size,  shape,  and  color. 

2.  Any  markings  upon  the  surface. 

3.  Make  a  sketch. 

4.  Is  the  part  studied  root,  stem,  or  leaf  ? 

5 .  Write  down  your  answer  and  give  your  reasons  for  it. 

6.  How  long  does  the  Carrot,  Radish,  or  Beet  live? 

XIV.  How  is  nourishment  stored  up  in  the  seed  for  the 
use  of  the  embryo  ? 


CHAP.  XI  STORAGE  63 

XV.  If  thin  slices  of  the  wood  of  the  trunk,  branches,  and 
roots  of  trees  be  examined  under  the  compound  microscope 
during  the  resting  season  (winter)  and  tested  with  the  proper 
chemicals,  it  will  be  found  that  considerable  quantities  of 
starch  are  stored  away  in  the  pith,  medullary  rays,  and  even 
in  the  wood  cells  for  use  during  the  season  of  rapid  growth. 

XVI.  Of  what  advantage  to  the  plant  are  the  supplies  of 
nourishment  thus  stored  away? 

XVII.  Write  a  summary  of  this   chapter,  stating  what 
plant-parts  are   used  for  the  purpose  of  storing  food  ma- 
terials, and  how  they  are  modified  to  do  so. 


64  LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


CHAPTER   XII 

CLIMBING   PLANTS 

IN  our  work  upon  stems  (compare  Chapter  IV),  we 
found  that  one  of  the  functions  or  uses  of  the  stem  was  to 
support  the  leaves  and  to  carry  them  up  into  the  air. 

When  we  examine  plants  as  regards  height  of  stem,  we 
find  that  this  varies  from  almost  nothing  to  several  hundred 
feet.  We  find  also,  as  a  general  rule,  that  the  higher  the 
plant  rises  into  the  air,  the  stouter  the  stem  becomes,  until 
we  have  such  stems  as  the  trunks  of  trees. 

There  is  one  set  of  plants,  however,  which  do  not  follow 
this  rule.  They  rise  above  their  neighbors  to  obtain  the  air 
and  sunshine  they  covet,  while  still  possessing  weak  and 
slender  stems.  Such  are  the  plants  which  have  climbing 
habits. 

I.  Take  a  plant  (or  the  upper  portion  of  a  plant)  of  the 
Hop  or  of  Manettia.  Examine  it  carefully  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  very  slender  stem. 

2.  That   it   has   entwined   itself  spirally   about   a    slender 

support. 

3.  That  it  twines  about  the  support  with  the  sun  or  from 

right  to  left  (as  one  faces  it). 

4.  The  tip,  usually  extending  out  at  nearly  right  angles  to 

the  support,  and  then  curving  abruptly. 

5.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  these  points. 


CLIMBING   PLANTS 


6.  If  the  Hop  is  used,  examine  the  surface  of  the  stem  to 
see  how  it  manages  to  obtain  a  firmer  hold  upon  the 
support. 

II.  Take  a  plant  (or  the  upper  part  of  a  plant)  of  the 
Morning  Glory.     Examine  it  carefully  and  notice  :  — 

1.  That  it  is  very  similar  to  the  Hop,  except 

2.  That  it  twines  around  its  support  in  exactly  the  opposite 

direction,  i.e.  directly  against  the  sun,  or  from  left 
to  right. 

3.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  this. 

III.  i.   Watch  both  plants  for  several   days,  and  notice 
how  they  twine  about  the  support. 

2.  Try  to  make  each  twine  in  the  opposite  direction  by 

twisting  it  about  its  support  in  the  opposite  way  and 
tying  it.     Notice  :  — 

3.  That  as  soon  as  the  tip  grows  out  beyond  where  it  has 

been  tied,  it  returns  to  its  former  way  of  twining. 

IV.  Examine  all  the  twining  plants  you  can,  and  com- 
pare them  with  those  you  have  studied. 

V.  Examine  a  plant  of  the  common  Squash  and  notice :  — 

1.  The  slender  weak  stem. 

2.  The  tendrils ;  slender  lateral  prolongations  which  curve 

at  the  tips  and  coil  about  slender  objects  with  which 
they  come  into  contact. 

3.  That  the  tendrils  contract  spirally  (i.e.  shorten  them- 

selves by  coiling),  and 

4.  That,  at  the  end  next  the  stem,  they  coil  in  one  direction, 

while  at  the  end  nearest  the  support,  they  coil  in  the 
opposite  direction. 


LABORATORY    PRACTICE 


5.  Notice  also  the  relation,  as  regards  position,  existing  be- 

tween each  tendril  and  the  adjacent  leaf. 

6.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  these  points. 

7.  Is  the  tendril  a  stem,  root,  or  leaf  ? 

8.  Write  down  your  answer,  and  give  your  reasons  for  it. 

9.  How,  then,  does  the  Squash  raise  itself  into  the  air  and 

sustain  itself  there  ? 

VI.  Examine  a  Pea  Plant  and  notice  the  tendrils. 

1.  How  do  they  differ  from  those  of  the  Squash? 

2.  Are  they  stems,  roots,  or  leaves? 

3.  Sketch  the  tendril  of  the  Pea  and  the  adjacent  structures 

to  show  these  parts. 

VII.  Examine  tendrils  in  as  many  different  plants  as  you 
can,  and  compare  them  with  those  you  have  studied. 

VIII.  Examine  a  plant  of  the  Jasmine-flowered  Night- 
shade (Solanum  Jasminoides)  and  notice  :  — 

1.  That  its  tip  twines  about  the  support.    In  what  direction  ? 

2.  That  the  petioles  of  the  leaves  clasp  the  stem  tightly, 

and  become  much  thickened. 

3.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  this. 

IX.  Examine  a  plant  of  Clematis  or  Virgin's  Bower  and 
notice  :  — 

1.  The  twining  habit  and  its  direction'. 

2.  The  compound  leaves,  clasping  the   support   both   by 

means  of  the  main  petiole  and  by  means   of  the 
petioles  of  the  leaflets. 

3.  Make  sketches  to  show  this. 

X.  Examine  the  English  Ivy  and  notice  :  — 
i.   That  the  stem  does  not  twine. 


CLIMBING  PLANTS 


2.  That  the  stem  fastens  itself  to  large  objects  by  means  of 

numerous  small  rootlets  (aerial  rootlets) . 

3.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  these  points. 

XL  Do  you  know  of  any  other  plants  which  climb  as  the 
English  Ivy  does? 

XII.  Write  out  a  short  essay  upon  the  different  methods 
in  which  plants  climb,  explain  the  advantages  of  each,  and 
show  what  different  parts  of  the  plant  are  modified  to  form 
climbing  organs. 


LABORATORY    PRACTICE 


CHAPTER   XIII 

EPIPHYTES,  PARASITES,  AND    SAPROPHYTES 

WE  have,  thus  far,  been  studying  plants  with  roots  spread 
out  under  ground  and  obtaining  food  for  the  plant  from  the 
earth.  These  plants  have  also  been  in  the  possession  of 
green  leaves,  well  developed,  acting  as  foliage,  to  obtain 
materials  from  the  air  for  the  use  of  the  plant  and  working 
over  the  materials  thus  obtained  by  themselves  and  by  the 
roots,  and  manufacturing  from  them  the  substances  needed 
by  the  plant  for  its  own  processes  of  life. 

Since  we  are  about  to  study  several  plants  which  live  in 
different  ways  from  the  ordinary  plants,  we  shall  find  it  to 
our  advantage  to  remember  that  the  ordinary  or  typical  plant 
behaves  as  follows  :  — 

1.  It  buries  its  roots  under  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  order 

that  it  may  obtain  water  and  whatever  is  dissolved 
in  it. 

2.  It  spreads  out  its  leaves  into  the  air  to  expose  them  to 

the  air  and  the  sunlight. 

3.  Its  leaves  are  green  as  long  as  they  are  healthy,  but  turn 

yellow  as  they  begin  to  die  or  are  deprived  of  sun- 
light. 

I.  Take  one  of  the  Orchids  of  the  greenhouses  which  are 
grown  on  hanging  pieces  of  wood.  Notice :  — 


CHAP.  XIII        EPIPHYTES.  PARASITES,  SAPROPHYTES  69 

1.  That  the  roots  hang  down  into  the  air  and  do  not  seem 

to  need  to  penetrate  the  earth. 

2.  That  the  air  of  the  greenhouse  is  damp  and  warm. 

3.  That  the  leaves  are  expanded  and  green. 

4.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  Orchid  to  show  these  points. 

5.  This  is  an  epiphyte,  or  a  plant  which  grows  upon  another 

plant  and  yet  does  not  draw  any  nourishment  from  it. 

6.  The  roots  are  called  aerial  roots,  and  obtain  nourishment 

from  the  damp  air.  The  most  conspicuous  epiphytes 
are  found  growing  in  the  tropical  zone. 

II.  Take  a  Lichen,  such  as  are  common  upon  the  bark  of 
trees.     Notice :  — 

1.  That  it  simply  grows  upon  the  surface. 

2.  It  is  a  good  example  of  an  epiphyte,  but  it  belongs  to  an 

entirely  different  class  of  plants  from  those  we  have 
been  studying  It  has  no  distinct  stem  and  leaves, 
no  flowers,  no  real  roots,  etc.  (It  belongs  to  those 
plants  which  we  call  flowerless  plants,  while  we  are 
studying  the  flowering  plants  chiefly.) 

III.  Take  a  piece  of  Mistletoe,  together  with  a  portion 
of  the  branch  to  which  it  is  attached.     Notice  :  — 

1.  The  distinct  stem. 

2.  The  expanded,  green  leaves. 

3.  The  close  union  with  the  host  (i.e.  with  the  tree  or  shrub 

upon  which  it  is  growing) . 

4.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  these  characteristics. 

IV.  Cut  through  the  base  of  the  Mistletoe  and  the  branch 
of  its  host  at  the  point  of  union  (longitudinally  as  regards 
the  mistletoe).     Notice  :  — 

i.   The  extension  of  the  Mistletoe  under  the  bark  of  the 
host. 


70  LABORATORY   PRACTICE  CHAP,  xm 

2.  The  close  contact  between  this  extension  and  the  wood 

of  the  host. 

3.  The  suckers  or  projections  from  the  extension  into  the 

wood  of  the  host.     (These  are  found  only  in  the 
European  Mistletoe  (  Viscum  album). 

4.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  these  points. 

V.  The  Mistletoe,  then,  not  only  grows  upon  another 
plant,  but  it  sends  its  roots  (viz.  the  "  extensions  ")  down  into 
the  substance  of  that  plant  to  draw  away  its  sap  instead  of 
hanging  them  out  into  the  air  as  the  Orchid  does.     The 
Mistletoe  is  a  parasite,  living  at  the  expense  of  another  plant. 

It  is  also  a  green  parasite,  and  takes  only  crude  sap  (i.e. 
the  sap  passing  up  from  the  roots  to  the  leaves)  from  its 
host,  but  it  still  possesses  green  leaves  like  other  plants  to 
take  materials  from  the  air  and  to  work  over  or  elaborate 
the  materials  obtained  in  these  two  ways  for  its  own  benefit. 

VI.  Take  a  piece  of  the  Dodder  together  with  a  portion 
of  the  host  plant  around  which  it  is  entwined.     Notice  :  — 

3.   The  slender  twining  stem  destitute  of  leaves. 

2.  The  direction  in  which  it  twines  about  the  stem  of  the 

host  plant.     (Compare  Chapter  XII,  §§  I  and  II.) 

3.  The  absence  of  a  root  at  the  lower  end.    (For  the  pur- 

pose of  demonstrating  this  point,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  examine  young  plants  where  they  grow.) 

4.  The  small  suckers,  arising  from  the  stem  and  penetrat- 

ing the  host  plant. 

5.  The  color  of  the  stem  and  suckers. 

6.  The  flowers,  if  any  are  present. 

7.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  these  points. 

8.  Are  the  suckers  root-,  stem-,  or  leaf-structures? 

9.  Why  does  the  Dodder  lack  leaves  of  any  appreciable 

size? 


CHAP.  XIII        EPIPHYTES,  PARASITES.  SAPROPHYTES  71 

10.   Write  down  your  answers  and  give  your  reasons  for 
them. 

VII.  In  the  case  of  the  Dodder,  we  have  a  parasite  which 
is  not  green,  i.e.  a  pale  parasite. 

VIII.  Place  a  piece  of  stale  bread  in  a  soup  plate,  wet  it 
thoroughly,  cover  with  a  bell-glass  or  cake-jar,  keep  in  a 
warm  place  for  a  week  (or  even  two  weeks),  and  then  ex- 
amine.    Notice :  — 

1.  The  cobwebby  grayish  mass  that  has  grown  upon  the 

bread. 

2.  This  is  the  "  Bread-Mould."     It  is  made  up  of 

3.  Fine  threads,  the  hyphcz,  and 

4.  Small  black  globes,  the  sporangia. 

5.  On  examining  the  latter  under  the  dissecting  microscope, 

we  shall  find  a  mass  of  small  blackish  bodies,  the 
spores.  Spores  differ  from  seeds,  especially  in  hav- 
ing no  embryo  within  the  spore-coats ;  but  we  shall 
study  a  little  more  about  spores  later  on.  We  are 
now  interested  in  the  way  in  which  the  Bread-Mould 
obtains  its  food.  Notice  :  — 

6.  The  absence  of  a  green  color. 

7.  The  small  rooting  organs  which  attach  the  Mould  to  the 

bread. 

8.  This  is  an  example  of  a  class  of  plants  called  saprophytes, 

which  live  upon  dead  organic  matter  (in  the  case  of 
the  Mould,  represented  by  the  bread). 

IX.  Does  the  bud  or  scion,  grafted  upon  a  stock  in  the 
orchard,  resemble  a  parasite?     If  so,  in  what  way?    Write 
your  answers  and  give  your  reasons  for  them. 


72  LABORATORY   PRACTICE  CHAP.  XIII 

X.  Write  out  a  set  of  comparisons,  stating  resemblances 
and  differences  between  the  following  sets  :  — 

1.  The  typical  green  plants  and  the  green  parasites. 

2.  The  green  parasites  and  the  pale  parasites. 

3.  The  pale  parasites  and  the  saprophytes. 

XI.  Show  how  a  typical  plant  might  be  led  to  become  a 
saprophyte  and  what  changes  would  take  place.     Write  out 
your  opinions  on  these  points  in  the  form  of  an  essay,  stat- 
ing facts  supporting  them. 


CHAP,  xiv  INSECTIVOROUS   PLANTS  73 


CHAPTER   XIV 

INSECTIVOROUS    PLANTS 

WE  have  seen  in  the  preceding  chapter  how  some  plants, 
departing  from  the  simple  habits  of  the  ordinary  green  plant, 
obtain  their  nourishment  from  other  plants  or  even  from 
dead  organic  matter.  There  are  still  several  of  the  larger 
and  more  complex  plants  which  capture  and  digest  (to  some 
extent  at  least)  small  animals,  such  as  insects,  water-fleas, 
etc.,  and  are  provided  with  special  apparatus  for  the  pur- 
pose. We  call  them  Carnivorous  or  Insectivorous  Plants. 

I.  Examine  the  leaf  of  the  Common  Pitcher  Plant  (Sar- 
racenia  purpurea) ,  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  hollow,  pitcher-shaped  petiole. 

2.  The  small  blade,  forming  the  lip  of  the  pitcher. 

3.  The  contents,  both  liquid  and  solid. 

4.  The  inner  surface  of  the  blade,  i.e.  the  hairs  clothing  it, 

the  direction  in  which  they  point,  etc., 

5.  That  they  stop  abruptly  at  the  lower  limit  of  the  blade, 

and  that  the  surface  of  the  inside  of  the  pitcher  is 
perfectly  smooth. 

6.  How  does  this  arrangement  of  hairs  and  smooth  surface 

help  to  entrap  an  insect?  Where  would  it  alight 
and  what  would  happen  to  it  ?  Write  out  the  story 
of  its  capture. 

7.  Make  sketches  of  the  whole  leaf  and  of  its  parts. 


LABORATORY    PRACTICE 


II.  Examine  a  leaf  of  the  Californian  Darlingtonia  and 
notice  :  — 

1.  The  general  shape,  size,  color,  etc. 

2.  The  parts  — 

(a)  lower  slender  portion  and 

(b)  upper  hood-shaped  portion  of  the  petiole  ; 

(c)  the  split  blade  hanging  out  "mustache  fashion" 

beyond 

(d)  the  elliptical  opening  with  its  incurved  rim. 

3.  Make  sketches  to  show  these  parts  and  label. 

III.  Cut  a  leaf  open  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  transparent  spots  (^windows"}  and 

2.  The  downwardly  projecting  hairs  within  the  hood. 

3.  The  smooth  inner  walls  of  the  slender  tube. 

4.  The  contents,  solid  and  liquid,  of  the  lower  part  of  the 

tube. 

5.  Write  out  the  story  of  the  trapping  of  an  insect  by  this 

leaf. 

Where  does  it  alight? 
What  is  the  rim  of  the  opening  for  ? 
What  are  the  hairs  for? 
Why  do  they  point  the  way  they  do  ? 
What  are  the  windows  for? 
What  is  the  smooth  surface  for? 
What  is  the  liquid  for? 

Is  this  liquid  produced  by  the  plant  or  not?     Give 
the  reasons  for  your  answers. 

IV.  Examine  the  leaves  of  a  healthy  plant  of  the  Venus 
Fly-trap,  and  notice  :  — 

i.   The  petiole,  flattened,  with  a  longitudinal  groove  through 
the  middle. 


CHAP,  xiv  INSECTIVOROUS  PLANTS  75 

2.  The  contraction  just  under  the 

3.  Blade  which  consists  of  two  parts. 

4.  The  teeth  upon  the  margins  of  the  blade. 

5.  The  bristles  upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf-blade. 

6.  Notice  especially  this  upper  surface  of  the  blade. 

7.  Make  sketches  to  show  these  points. 

V.  Irritate  the  blade  by  touching  the  bristles  upon  the 
upper  surface   and   notice   the   details   of  its   movements. 
Describe  them.     How  long  does  it  take  to  close?     Does 
it  open  again? 

VI.  Place  a  small  piece  of  meat  upon  the  upper  surface 
of  the  lamina.     Watch  and  take  notes  for  several  days. 

VII.  Examine    an    expanded   (i.e.    open)    leaf  of   the 
Common  Sundew  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  slender  petiole. 

2.  The  thick  rounded  blade  with 

3.  The  projecting  glands  upon  their  stalks,  covering  the 

upper  surface. 

4.  Make  sketches  to  show  these  characters. 

VIII.  Place  a  small  piece  of  meat  upon  the  centre  of  the 
upper  surface  of  an  expanded  leaf,  and  notice  what  happens. 
What  parts  move  first?   next?   next?   and  so  on.     Keep 
watching   the   plant   as   you    have    opportunity  for  several 
days. 

IX.  What  is  the  difference  as   regards   the  method  of 
capturing  the  prey  between  the  two  Pitcher  Plants  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  Venus  Fly-trap  and  the  Sundew  on  the 
other?     Write  your  answer. 

X.  Are  the  Insectivorous  Plants  parasites  or  saprophytes  r 
Why? 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


CHAPTER   XV 

REPRODUCTION 

A  SINGLE  plant  is  an  individual.  Any  method,  by  which 
the  number  of  individuals  of  a  species  is  increased,  is  called  a 
method  of  reproduction. 

A  plant  may  produce  new  individuals,  i.e.  increase  the 
number  of  independent  plants,  by  simply  splitting  or  divid- 
ing itself  up,  by  detaching  parts  of  itself,  or  it  may  produce 
special  bodies  which  are  unlike  any  of  its  ordinary  vegeta- 
tive parts,  and  these  bodies  finally  produce  new  plants. 
Accordingly,  we  may  distinguish  the  two  general  methods 
of  reproduction,  as  follows  :  — 

I.  Vegetative  Reproduction. 
II.   Seed  and  Spore  Reproduction. 


VEGETATIVE   REPRODUCTION 


CHAPTER   XVI 

VEGETATIVE   REPRODUCTION 

VEGETATIVE  REPRODUCTION,  in  its  broadest  meaning,  in- 
cludes all  those  methods  of  increasing  the  number  of  the 
individuals  of  a  species  other  than  by  the  special  bodies 
called  seeds  and  spores.  Some  plants  have  a  number  of 
ways  of  multiplying  vegetatively,  others  very  few  or  none  at 
all.  We  shall  examine  a  few  typical  cases. 

I.  Take  a  well-grown  stem  of  the  Tiger  Lily  of  the  gardens 
and  notice :  — 

1.  The  stem. 

2.  The  leaves. 

3.  The  black  bodies  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.    They  are 

called  bulblets. 

4.  Sketch  a  piece  of  stem,  a  leaf,  and  a  bulblet. 

5.  Are  the  bulblets  leaf-  or  branch-structures?    Write  down 

your  answer  and  give  reasons  for  it. 

II.  Detach  a  bulblet,  dissect  it  and  make  sketches. 

1.  Do  the  bulblets  drop  off  or  not? 

2.  What  is  the  bulblet  for? 

3.  How  does  it  produce  a  new  individual? 

III.  Examine  the  flowering  portions  of  a  number  of  culti- 
vated Onions  and  notice  :  — 


78  LABORATORY   PRACTICE  CHAP.  XVI 

1.  That  some  of  the  flowers  have  been  replaced  by  bulblets. 

2.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  this. 

IV.  Examine  the  axils  of  the  leaves  of  a  Yam  (if  oppor- 
tunity  presents)   and   notice   the   small   tuber-like    bodies 
(resembling  small  Potatoes)  found  there. 

V.  Examine  the  underground  portion  of  an  old  Raspberry 
Plant  and  notice  :  — 

r.  That  branches  are  given  off  from  the  main  plant  below 
the  ground,  which  run  along  for  a  short  distance, 
then  turn  upward  and  produce  a  new  shoot  which 
makes  its  way  into  the  air. 

2.  Make  a  diagram  of  this. 

3.  Such  a  branch  is  called  a  sucker. 

4.  How  does  the  gardener  take  advantage  of  suckers  to 

obtain  new  Raspberry  Plants? 

VI.  Examine  a  group  of  Strawberry  Plants  and  notice  :  — 

1.  One  of  the  slender,  tendril-like  branches  sent  out  from 

the  main  plant. 

2.  That  it  curves  over  so  that  the  tip  may  rest  upon  the 

ground. 

3.  That  roots,  springing  from  the  tip,  penetrate  the  ground  ; 

that  leaves  are  produced ;  and  that  finally  there  is  a 
young  plant  attached  to  the  parent  plant  by  a  slender 
piece  of  stem. 

4.  That  finally  this  stem  dies  and  the  young  plants  are 

free. 

5.  Make  diagrams  to  show  these  points. 

6.  Such  a  slender  branch,  behaving  in  this  way,  is  called  a 

runner. 


CHAP.  XVI  VEGETATIVE   REPRODUCTION  79 

VII.  Plants  having  underground  stems  which  branch,  in- 
crease in  number  by  the  dying  away  of  the  older  portions 
of  the  stem.     When  the  dying  portion  reaches  a  place  where 
a  branch  is  situated,  the  union  between  the  two  parts  is 
broken  and  instead  of  one  plant  we  have  two.     After  this 
has  been  repeated  several  times,  there  are  several  plants,  all 
from  the  same  original  stock. 

To  realize  how  this  may  happen,  examine  the  slender 
root-stock  of  some  Mint  or  Grass  and  notice :  — 

1.  The  branches,  which  may  be  numerous  or  may  be  few. 

2.  The  nodes  and  internodes. 

3.  The  buds  at  the  nodes,  which  may  develop  into  lateral 

branches. 

4.  The  terminal  buds  at  the  ends  of  the  branches. 

5.  How  the  root-stock  is  dying  away  at  the  other  end  of  the 

root-stock. 

6.  Make  sketches  to  show  these  points. 

VIII.  Examine  the  underground  portions  of  Iris,  notice 
how  it  is  multiplied  (as  described  in  VII)  and  make  dia- 
grams to  show  it. 

IX.  Examine  slips  or  cuttings  of  Pelargoniums,  English 
Ivies,  or  Willows,  which  have  been  planted  in  moist  sand 
for  several  weeks.     Make  sketches  and  describe  what  has 
happened.     What  are  the  advantages  of  propagating  a  plant 
by  cuttings  over  propagating  by  seed?    Write  your  answers. 

X.  Examine  leaves  of  Bryophyllum  (or  leaf-cuttings  of 
some   species  of  "  tuberous   Begonia ")  which   have   been 
lying  upon  moist  sand.     Notice  and  sketch  the  buds  formed 
at  the  notches  in  the  margin  of  the  leaf  (or  at  the  cut  ends 
of  the  ribs  of  the  leaf  of  the  Begonia) — sketch  and  label. 


LABORATORY  PRACTICE 


XI.  Explain  how  grafting  and  budding  enable  man   to 
propagate   a  particular   form   and  why  he   resorts  to  this 
method. 

XII.  Examine   the   stem   of   the    Prickly  Pear   Cactus 
(Opuntia),  and  notice  the  joints  of  which  it  is  made  up. 
Each  joint  may  separate,  or  be  separated,  and  grow  into  a 
new  plant.     Make  notes  and  sketches. 

XIII.  Do  you  know  of  any  plants  other  than  those  just 
studied    which    multiply  vegetatively  ?     If  so,   name    and 
describe  them. 

XIV.  Compare  the  different  methods  of  vegetative  repro- 
duction which  you  have  studied,  stating  particularly  whether 
root-,  stem-,  or  leaf-structures  were  employed. 


CHAP,  xvn  SEED  REPRODUCTION  81 


CHAPTER  XVII 

SEED   REPRODUCTION 

IN  our  earliest  work  we  examined  carefully  a  number  of 
different  seeds  and  learned  that  a  seed  must  contain  an 
embryo  or  rudimentary  plantlet  —  showing,  usually,  distinct 
stem-  and  leaf-portions,  with  a  provision,  also,  for  the  pro- 
duction of  a  root  or  roots. 

We  know,  also,  that  flowers  precede  fruits  and  that  the 
fruits  contain  seeds,  in  the  ordinary  plants.  Consequently 
we  shall  first  consider  various  kinds  of  flowers  as  well  as 
matters  pertaining  to  them  and  then  fruits,  in  order  to  study 
the  important  details  of  reproduction  by  seeds  and  the  phe- 
nomena attending  it. 


LABORATORY  PRACTICE  CHAP,  xvm 

U  &  h-Lot 

'ft     U-^-^-U>     £, 
t-  O  Ol^<  t*&**- 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

A   TYPICAL   OR   PATTERN   FLOWER 

I.   Take    a    flower    of   some    species   of    Crassula   and 
notice :  — 

1.  Its  size,  shape,  color,  etc. 

2.  Its  structure  :  — 

(a)  A  circle  of  green,  leaf-like  pieces  on  the  very 
outside.  These  are  called  sepals  and  the 
circle  of  sepals  is  called  a  calyx. 

(£)    How  many  sepals  are  there  ? 

(*)    Are  they  all  alike  ? 

(</)  Next  to  these  a  circle  of  colored  parts,  the  co- 
rolla, composed  of  petals.  How  many  petals 
are  there?  Are  they  all  alike ? 

(e)  Following  the  petals,  a  circle  of  stamens.  How 
many  are  there  ?  Are  they  all  alike  ? 

(/)  Each  stamen  is  made  up  of  two  parts,  the  stalk 
or  filament  below  and  the  anther  or  sack  con- 
taining the  yellow  dust  (polleii)  above. 

(g)  The  innermost  circle  of  green  bodies,  the  pistils, 
each  of  which  is  composed  of  three  parts  :  — 
the  lower  swollen  portion,  the  ovary;  the 
slender  portion  above  it,  the  style ;  and  the 
small  body  at  the  tip,  the  stigma. 

(h)    How  many  pistils  are  there  ?     Are  they  all  alike  ? 


CHAP,  xvni      A  TYPICAL  OR   PATTERN    FLOWER  83 

II.  Remove  several  stamens  entire,  examine  one  a  little 
more  carefully  under  the  lens  and  notice  :  — 

1 .  The  size,  shape,  and  color  of  the  filaments. 

2.  The  way  in  which  the  anther  is  attached  to  the  filament. 

3.  Examining  the  anthers  in  some  buds  or  flowers  not  yet 

opened,  notice  the  two  longitudinal  halves  of  each 
anther  —  each  is  called  an  anther  cell. 

4.  Examining  the  stamen  of  an  older  flower,  notice  how 

each  anther  cell  opens  to  allow  the  pollen  to  escape. 

5.  Make  sketches  to  show  this. 

III.  Remove  several  pistils  carefully  and  examine   the 
different  parts  under  the  lens  (or  better,  under  a  dissecting 
microscope) .     Notice  :  — 

1.  The  stigma,  its  size,  shape,  and  structure.     (Compare  if 

possible  the  stigma  of  the  pistil  of  a  Lily  or  Begonia 
and  notice  the  roughness  and  moistness  of  the  stigma. 
Touch  such  a  stigma  to  the  tongue  and  notice  its 
taste.  Sometimes  the  stigma  of  the  Lily  has  enough 
moisture  upon  it  to  form  a  distinct  drop.) 

2.  The  slender  style,  its  smoothness  as  compared  with  the 

stigma. 

3.  The  swollen  ovary.     Carefully  cut  the  ovary  longitudi- 

nally along  one  edge  and  open  it.  Within  will  be 
found 

4.  A  hollow,  the  cell  of  the  ovary  —  within  the  cell  may  be 

seen 

5.  A  row  of  small  bodies,  the  ovules.    These  are  the  bodies 

which  ripen  into  seeds. 

6.  The  surface  to  which  the  ovules  are  attached  is  called 

the  placenta.    This  pistil  has  only  one  placenta. 

7.  Make  a  sketch  (or  diagram)  to  show  these  points,  and 

label  carefully. 


84  LABORATORY   PRACTICE  CHAP,  xvm 

IV.  Such  a  pistil  is  called  a  simple  pistil  because  it  has 
only  one  stigma,  one  style,  one  ovary,  one  cell  to  the  ovary, 
and  one  placenta.     (Any  pistil  having  more  than  one  style 
stigma,  ovary-cell,  or  placenta,  is  called  a  compound  pistil. 
Compound  pistils  are  more  common  than  simple  ones.) 

V.  Pick  off  all  the  parts  of  the  flower  in  regular  order, 
beginning  with  the  sepals.     The  small  conical  tip  of  the  stem 
upon  which  they  are  inserted  is  called  the  receptacle. 

VI.  This  flower  is  an  example  of  a  perfect,  complete,  reg- 
ular, and  symmetrical  flower. 

1.  It  is  perfect  because  it  has  both  stamens  and  pistils. 

2.  It  is  complete  because  it  has  all  the  organs  possible  for  a 

flower  to  have :  viz.  sepals,  petals,  stamens,  and 
pistils.  (A  complete  flower  must  necessarily  be 
perfect.) 

3.  It  is  regular  because  in  each  circle  all  the  parts  are  of 

the  same  size  and  shape  (i.e.  without  any  striking  dif- 
ferences) . 

4.  It  is  symmetrical  because  each  circle  contains  the  same 

number  of  parts  as  each  other  circle. 

VII.  Alternation  of  the  Parts  of  the  Flower.  —  Take  an 
uninjured  flower  and  notice  :  — 

1.  Whether  the  petals  are  in  front  of  the  sepals  or  in  front 

of  the  spaces  between  the  sepals. 

2.  Does  the  same  thing  hold  true  for  the  stamens  in  relation 

to  the  petals  ? 

3.  For  the  pistils  in  relation  to  the  stamens? 

4.  This  is  called  the  alternation  of  the  parts  of  the  flower 

and  is  true  for  the  parts  of  most  flowers. 


CHAP,  xvin     A  TYPICAL  OR   PATTERN   FLOWER  85 

VIII.  Ground  Plan  of  the  Flower.  —  Draw  by  the  aid  of 
a  pair  of  compasses  four  faint  concentric  circles,  one  within 
the  other. 

1.  Upon  the  innermost,  represent  the  five  pistils  (drawing 

cross-sections  of  the  ovaries) . 

2.  In  the  next  outer  circle,  represent  the  stamens  (by  cross- 

sections  of  the  anthers)  alternating  with  the  pistils. 

3.  In  the  next  outer  circle,  represent  the  petals  (by  cross- 

sections)  alternating  with  the  stamens,  and  finally 

4.  Represent  the  sepals  in  the  same  way  in  the  outermost 

circle. 

5.  This  is  what  is  usually  called  a  ground  plan  of  the  flower 

and  represents  the  number  and  alternation  (or  lack 
of  it)  of  the  parts  in  such  a  way  that  they  may  be  seen 
at  a  glance.  To  be  especially  accurate,  the  particular 
way,  which  varies  somewhat  in  different  flowers,  in 
which  the  sepals  or  petals  overlap  one  another,  should 
also  be  represented. 

IX.  The  Numerical  Plan  of  the  Flower.  —  The  numerical 
plan  of  a  flower  is  represented  by  the  number  which  pre- 
dominates in  the  different  circles  of  the  flower.      In  the 
flower  just  studied  the  same  number  is  represented  in  each 
of  the  four  circles.     What  is  its  numerical  plan  ? 

X.  The   Crassula  is  a  type  or  pattern  flower  because  it  is 
complete,  regular,  and  symmetrical,  has  alternation  of  parts, 
and  all  the  parts  free  and  distinct  one  from  the  other.     A 
flower  must  have  these  five  qualities  to  be  a  pattern  flower. 
Few  flowers  are  pattern  flowers. 

XI.  A  flower  must  contain  either  pistils  or  stamens  (or 
both).     Some  flowers  are  reduced  to  a  single  stamen  or  a 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


single  pistil,  but  such  flowers  are  neither  common  nor  con- 
spicuous. The  stamens  and  pistils  are  therefore  called  the 
essential  parts. 

XII.  Carefully  review  the  terms  given  in  this  chapter 
and  become  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  definition  of 
each. 


FERTILIZATION  87 


CHAPTER   XIX 

FERTILIZATION 

WE  all  know  that  the  fruit  and  seed  follow  the  flower,  and 
as  we  go  on  to  study  the  flower  further,  we  see  that  every- 
thing about  it  is  constructed  to  favor  the  development  of  the 
seed.  Color,  fragrance,  position  on  the  plant,  time  of  open- 
ing and  shutting,  the  massing  of  flowers  together ;  in  short, 
every  detail  of  structure  to  be  found  in  any  flower,  is  to  help 
in  this  work. 

We  found  in  the  ovary-cell  certain  ovules,  which  develop 
into  seeds  under  proper  conditions.  Let  us  consider  one  of 
the  most  essential  conditions  to  the  development  of  the  seed 
from  such  ovules. 

Within  the  ovule  there  is  no  embryo  at  first,  but  there  is, 
among  other  things,  a  very  small  body,  visible  only  under 
the  higher  powers  of  the  compound  microscope,  called  the 
nucleus.  Within  each  little  particle  or  grain  of  pollen  there 
is  another  microscopic  nucleus.  These  two  nuclei  must 
come  together  in  the  body  of  the  ovule  and  unite  into  one 
before  the  processes  which  result  in  the  growth  of  an  embryo 
may  be  started.  The  process  of  accomplishing  this  is  called 
the  fertilization  of  the  flower. 

But  in  order  that  the  nucleus  from  the  pollen  grain  may 
unite  with  that  in  the  ovule,  it  must  get  over  from  the  anther, 
in  some  way,  and  down  to  the  ovule  itself;  for  the  ovule 
remains  stationary,  while  the  pollen  grain  is  free  to  be 


LABORATORY    PRACTICE 


moved.  Consequently,  first,  the  pollen  grain  must  get  from 
its  home  in  the  anther  cell  to  the  stigma.  This  is  the  first 
step  in  fertilization,  and  is  called  pollination.  Pollination 
deals  with  the  transfer  of  the  pollen  from  the  anther  to  the 
stigma. 

Then  the  pollen  grain  must  "grow  down"  through  the 
stigma  and  style  into  the  ovary  cell,  and  penetrate  the 
ovule,  so  that  the  two  nuclei  may  unite.  When  the  pollen 
grain  falls  upon  the  stigma,  it  is  caught  and  held  there  by 
the  roughness  of  the  stigma  and  by  a  sticky  sugary  fluid 
upon  it.  Under  the  influence  of  this  sticky  fluid,  the  pollen 
grain  grows  out  into  a  tube  which  bores  its  way  down  into 
the  stigma  and  through  the  style  (if  there  is  any)  until  it 
comes  to  the  ovule.  The  end  of  the  tube  finds  its  way  into 
the  ovule  [through  the  small  opening  which  persists  in  the 
ripened  seed  and  is  called  the  micropyle  (compare  Chapter 
I,  §  II,  6,  etc.)],  the  nucleus  which  it  carries  comes  into 
contact  with  the  nucleus  in  the  ovule,  and  they  unite. 
Fertilization  is  then  complete,  and  the  embryo  begins  to 
form. 

This  second  step  in  fertilization  is  called  the  descent  of  the 
pollen  tube.  It  is  very  similar  in  all  plants,  and  can  be  stud- 
ied only  by  the  aid  of  the  compound  microscope  and  careful 
and  complicated  preparations.  But  the  first  step,  that  of 
pollination,  is  very  different  in  different  plants,  and  can  be 
much  more  easily  made  out. 

We  distinguish  first  as  to  whether  the  pollen  which  acts 
upon  the  stigma  of  a  particular  flower  comes  from  the  sta- 
mens of  the  same  flower  or  from  those  of  a  different  flower. 
If  the  former,  it  is  called  close-fertilization;  if  the  latter, 
cross-fertiliza  tio  n . 

Cross- fertilization  is  more  common,  and  we  shall  study 
that  first.  Of  course  the  pollen  grains,  having  no  motion 


FERTILIZATION 


of  their  own,  must  be  carried  by  something  from  the  anther 
of  one  flower  to  the  stigma  of  another.  Two  agencies  are 
active  in  this  work,  the  wind  and  insects.  Flowers  which 
depend  upon  insects  for  cross-pollination  (i.e.  pollination 
resulting  in  cross-fertilization)  must,  as  we  can  readily  see, 
have  some  means  of  attracting  them.  We  find  that  flowers 
do  this  by  providing  bright  (or  conspicuous)  colors,  odors, 
or  honey.  Further,  the  flower  must  be  constructed  so  that 
it  cannot  readily  be  self-pollinated,  and  from  this  point  of 
view  the  different  shapes  of  flowers  must  be  studied.  We 
shall  study  some  of  these  peculiarities  under  the  following 
heads  :  Irregular  Flowers,  Unsymmetrical  Flowers,  Coales- 
cence, and  Adnation,  which  are,  in  most  cases,  devices  to  aid 
in  securing  cross-pollination. 

The  wind-pollinated  flowers  are  less  complicated  in  struc- 
ture, have  no  conspicuous  color,  no  odor,  and  no  honey. 

During  our  whole  study  of  the  flower,  we  must  ask  our- 
selves how  the  flower  is  fertilized,  i.e.  whether  it  is  cross-  or 
self-pollinated,  whether  insect-  or  wind-pollinated,  and  what 
special  devices  are  present  to  secure  cross-  or  close-pollina- 
tion or  to  prevent  the  one  or  the  other.  These  things  are 
the  keys  for  unlocking  to  us  the  mystery  of  the  variety  of 
flower  structure  and  coloration. 


90  LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


CHAPTER   XX 

IMPERFECT,  INCOMPLETE,  IRREGULAR,  AND 
UNSYMMETRICAL   FLOWERS 

THE  pattern  flower  which  we  have  just  studied  was  per- 
fect, complete,  regular,  and  symmetrical.  We  may  now 
study,  hastily,  several  flowers,  to  understand  what  is  meant 
by  the  converse  of  these  terms. 

I.  Imperfect  Flowers.  —  Examine  the  flowers  of  different 
plants  of  Begonia  and  notice  :  — 

i.  That  some  of  the  flowers  of  the  same  plant  are  provided 
with  stamens  only  and  others  with  pistils  only. 

3.  These  flowers  are  consequently  imperfect,  lacking  one  or 
other  of  the  essential  parts  ;  viz.  stamens  in  one  case 
and  pistils  in  the  other. 

3.  Make  notes  and  sketches; 

4.  Where  the  two  different  kinds  of  flowers  are  borne  on 

different  plants,  the  plant  is  said  to  be  dioecious,  but 
if  they  are  borne  on  the  same  plant,  as  in  Begonia, 
it  is  said  to  be  monoecious.  (Do  you  know  of  any 
dioecious  plant?) 

5.  Is  close-pollination  possible  in  a  monoecious  or  a  dioecious 

plant?  Write  down  your  answer  and  give  your  rea- 
sons for  it. 

6.  Distinguish  between  the  two  kinds  of  cross-pollination 

which    are    possible   in    monoecious   and    dioecious 


CHAP.  XX        INCOMPLETE,  IRREGULAR  FLOWERS  91 

plants.  Which  is  most  thoroughly  cross-pollination  ? 
Why? 

7.  The  student  should  make  a  special  note  of  the  fact  that 

imperfect  flowers  are  constructed  so  as  to  prevent 
close-pollination  and  compel  cross-pollination. 

8.  Is  the  cross-pollination  in  the  Begonia  effected  by  the 

agency  of  the  wind  or  of  insects  ?    Why  ? 

u  fii+i.e^iAJ 

II.  Incomplete  Flowers.  —  An  imperfect  flower  is  neces- 
sarily also  incomplete,  since  it  lacks  entirely  one  of  the  four 
circles.     But  a  perfect  flower  may  also  be  incomplete ;  for 
example,  take  the   flower  of  an   Anemone,    Hepatica,  or 
Prince's  Feather,  and  notice  :  — 

1.  That  both  stamens  and  pistils  are  present. 

2.  That  only  one  circle  of  floral  leaves  is  present,  and  when 

only  one  is  present,  it  is  called  the  calyx,  without 
regard  to  its  coloration. 

III.  Irregular   Flowers.  —  Take   the  flowers   of  a   Pea, 
Bean,  Wistaria,  Locust,  or  some  other  leguminous  plant,  and 
examine  the  corolla  carefully.     Notice  :  — 

1.  The  upper  broad petal  of  a  different  shape  (and  perhaps 

of  a  different  color)  from  the  rest.  It  is  called  the 
standard  or  banner,  and  is  spread  out  to  attract  the 
insects. 

2.  The  tivo  side  petals,  called  the  wings,  upon  which  the 

insects  alight. 

3.  The  two  lower  petals,  cohering  more  or  less  at  their  tips 

(but  seldom  really  grown  together),  forming  the  keel, 
enclosing  the  stamens  and  pistil.  . 

4.  Remove  these  five  petals,  lay  them  down  in  order,  and 

sketch  each  to  show  relative  size  and  shape. 


LABORATORY  PRACTICE 


5.  The  Pea  Flower  is  a  type  of  irregular  flower  found  upon 
the  'majority  of  the  plants  of  the  pea  family.  It  is 
called  a  papilionaceous  or  butterfly  flower. 

IV.  Study  also,  if  possible,  flowers  of  the  Larkspur  and 
the  Pansy  or  Violet  for  excellent  irregular  flowers ;  notice 
that  one  or  more  of  the  petals  or  sepals  in  each  is  pro- 
longed into  a  tube  or  spur  which  contains  honey.     What  is 
this  honey  for?    Are  the  stamens  all  alike?     Is  the  flower 
insect-  or  wind-pollinated?     What  is  the  numerical  plan? 

V.  Examine,  with  the  aid  of  the  teacher,  the  flower  of 
some  Orchid,  if  possible,  and  notice  the  great  irregularity 
and  the  devices  for  compelling  the  insect  to  touch  first  the 
stigma,  leaving  upon  it  the  pollen  brought  from  the  last 
flower  visited,  and  then,  upon  backing  out,  to  smear  itself 
with  the  pollen  of  this  flower,  to  carry  to  another. 

VI.  Unsymmetrical   Flowers.  —  Returning  to    a    flower 
with  a  papilionaceous  corolla,  notice  :  — 

1.  The  calyx  —  how  many  sepals  are  there? 

2.  The  corolla  —  how  many  petals  are  there? 

3.  The  stamens — how  many  are  there? 

4.  The  pistils  —  how  many  are  there  ?     How  many  styles  ? 

How  many  stigmas  ?      How  many  cells  in  the  ovary  ? 
How  many  placentae? 

5.  What  is  the  numerical  plan  of  this  flower  ?     Write  out  the 

reasons  for  your  answer. 

VII.  Review  and  distinguish  carefully  between  these  varia- 
tions in  structure  and  fix  in  mind  the  significance  of  each. 


CHAP,  xxi  COALESCENCE  AND  ADNATION  93 


CHAPTER   XXI 

COALESCENCE   AND   ADNATION 

I.  Take    a   flower  of    Convolvulus    or    Morning    Glory 
(Ipomcea)  and  notice  :  — 

1.  That  the  corolla  is  made  up  of  one  piece. 

2.  That  there  are  five  points  or  stripes  to  indicate  that  five 

petals  are  joined  together  at  their  edges. 

3.  Make  a  sketch  of  this  corolla. 

4.  Such  a  corolla  is  said  to  be  sympetalous,  or  having  the 

petals  united.1 

II.  When  parts  of  the  same  circle  are  joined  together,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  petals  of  the  Morning  Glory,  it  is  called 
coalescence.     Parts  of  any  of  the  four  circles  may  be  joined. 

Take  the  Pea  Flower  again,  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  calyx,  —  it  is  synsepalous.     Notice  the  lobes  indicat- 

ing the  sepals  composing  it. 

2.  Removing  the  corolla,  notice  that  nine  of  the  stamens 

are   united   into  one  piece  by  their  filaments,  the 
tenth  remaining  free. 

3.  Such  stamens  are  called  diadelphous  (in  two  brother- 

hoods)—  if  in  one  piece,  as  in  some  flowers  of  this 
family,  monadelphous,  etc. 

1  When  the  petals  are  separate  (or  "  distinct "),  the  corolla  is  said  to  be 
choripetalous. 


94  LABORATORY    PRACTICE 


III.  Coalescence  between  the  pistils  of  a  flower  is  ex- 
tremely common,  giving  rise  to  what  is  called  a  compound 
pistil,  or  one  in  which  the  number  of  styles,  stigmas,  cells  of 
the  ovary,  or  placentae  exceed  one. 

Take  the  flower  of  a  Lily  or  a  Hyacinth  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  number  of  stigmas. 

2.  The  number  of  styles. 

3.  Cut  across  the  ovary  and  notice  the  number  of  cells  and 

placentas.     Draw  a  diagram  of  this  cross-section. 

4.  It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  the  compound  pistil  of  this 

flower  is  made  up  of  three  coalescent  simple  pistils 
or  carpels. 

IV.  In  the  pattern  flower  we  noticed  that  all  the  parts 
of  the  flower  were  inserted  upon  the  receptacle  and  that  the 
parts  of  different  circles  were  not  united  in  any  case.     Some- 
times the  parts  of  different  circles  are  united.     When  this  is 
the  case,  it  is  called  adnation. 

V.  Examine    the    flower   of   some    species   of   Fuchsia 
(with  single  flowers)  or  some  species  of  Evening  Primrose 
(CEnothera^.     Notice  :  — 

1.  The  calyx  (synsepalous),  colored  (i.e.  not  green),  with 

four  lobes. 

2.  The  petals,  grown  to  ("  inserted  upon")  the  calyx.     This 

is  a  case  of  adnation. 

3.  The  stamens,  also  inserted  upon  the  calyx. 

4.  The  ovary,  bearing  the  "  tube  "  of  the  calyx  upon  its 

summit. 

VI.  Try  and  find  cases  of  adnation  in  the  flowers  you 
may  see,  and  notice  the  differences  between  the  different 
flowers. 


CHAP.  XXII       WIND-  AND   INSECT-POLLINATION  95 


CHAPTER  XXII 

WIND-   AND    INSECT-POLLINATION 

FEW  flowers  can  be  said  to  be  pollinated  exclusively  either 
by  the  wind  or  by  insects,  but  their  special  structure  adapts 
them  to  be  pollinated  generally  by  either  one  or  the  other. 

I.  Wind-Pollinated    Flowers.  —  These   are   usually   not 
showy,  that  is,  neither  large  nor  of  conspicuous  colors,  nor 
do  they  possess  odors  or  nectar.     The  student  should  exam- 
ine the  flowers  of  the  various   Plantains,  the  Nettles,  the 
Alders  (but  not  the  Willows),  the  Walnuts,  Hickory-nuts, 
Butternuts,  the  Oaks,  and  the  Birches  for  examples  of  the 
wind-pollinated  flowers.     This  should  be  done  out  of  doors 
and  the  results  written  in  the  note-books.     The  Grasses, 
particularly  Rye,  Oats,  Timothy,  and  above  all  Indian  Corn, 
should  be  examined.     The  method  in  which  the  anthers  are 
attached  to  the  filaments  and  the  protruding  feathery  stigmas 
of  the  Grasses  should  be  noted  and  sketched  ;  and  the  way 
in  which  these  assist  in  pollination  described. 

II.  Insect-Pollinated    Flowers.  —  Studies    in    the    field 
should   be   made   upon  this   subject  also,  attention   being 
directed  to  the  following  points :  — 

i.    Color. 

(a)    What    colors   are   more   conspicuous   by   day? 
What  by  night? 


96  LABORATORY  PRACTICE  CHAP,  xxil 

(b)  What  proportion  of  the  flowers  do  you  find 
yellow?  blue?  red?  white?  Do  these  vary 
during  the  seasons? 

(f)  Observe  the  flower  clusters  of  the  Lantana,  and 
of  the  Clovers,  and  notice  the  change  of  color, 
as  well  as  position,  during  the  blossoming  and 
withering.  Sketch  and  describe  them.  What 
are  the  reasons  for  these  occurrences? 

(d}  Observe  flowers  whose  petals  are  variegated 
with  stripes  of  color  or  ridges.  Where  do 
these  lead  to,  and  of  what  use  are  they? 

2.  Odor. 

(a)  With  what  colors  (white,  yellow,  blue,  or  red), 
which  you  can  study,  are  odors  mostly  associ- 
ated? 

(6)  Observe  that  while  the  odors  of  most  flowers  are 
agreeable  to  most  of  us,  some  flowers  have 
very  disagreeable  odors  :  such  are  the  Purple 
Trillium  (T.erectuni)  and  the  Carrion  Flower 
(Smilax  herbacea).  Such  odors  attract  flies 
and  carrion  beetles. 

3.  Nectar. 

(a)  Examine  the  Columbine,  Pansy,  Larkspur,  vari- 
ous Orchids,  etc.,  to  see  where  the  nectar  is 
stored ;  notice  that  in  these  cases  the  honey 
is  out  of  the  reach  of  insects  with  short  pro- 
bosces,  and  can  be  obtained  only  by  insects  with 
the  longer  probosces  and  by  humming-birds. 

(£)  Examine  a  Buttercup,  and  notice  the  small, 
deeply  colored  scales  at  the  base  of  each 
petal,  under  each  of  which  is  a  pit  contain- 
ing honey.  What  sort  of  an  insect  could  util- 
ize this  honey? 


CHAP.  XXII       WIND-  AND   INSECT-POLLINATION  97 

4.  Special  devices.  These  are  particularly  to  help  the  insect 
do  the  work  properly.  We  have  seen  some  in  the 
flowers  with  papilionaceous  corollas,  in  the  Larkspur, 
Pansy,  and  in  imperfect  flowers.  The  number  of 
devices  is  manifold.  Two  very  striking  ones  may  be 
studied  in  the  laboratory  if  the  plants  are  in  blossom, 
viz. :  — 

(a)  Examine  an  open  flower  of  some  species  of 
Mimulus  or  Monkey  Flower  (any  species,  or 
of  Torenia  of  the  greenhouses),  and  notice 
the  stigma.  It  consists  of  two  flat  pieces,  an 
upper  and  a  lower.  Selecting  a  stigma  in 
which  the  two  parts  are  separated  from  one 
another,  gently  stroke  the  inner  surfaces  with 
a  pin  or  bristle.  They  will  soon  begin  to 
move  and  come  together.  Look  at  them 
from  time  to  time  and  make  a  note  of  how 
long  it  takes  them  to  open.  (It  may  require 
an  hour  or  more.)  What  is  gained  to  the 
flower  by  this  device  ?  Write  out  your  answer 
in  your  note-books. 

(£)  Examine  a  cluster  of  flowers  of  some  species  of 
Barberry.  Selecting  an  open  flower,  notice 
that  the  stamens  are  lying  back  against  the 
petals.  Gently  stroke  the  filament  of  a  stamen 
and  notice  its  movements.  Do  the  same 
thing  to  another.  Make  a  note  of  this  phe- 
nomenon, and  write  out  your  opinion  as  to  its 
usefulness  to  the  flower. 

(f)  Kalmia  or  Calico-bush  (called  erroneously  Lau- 
rel) also  shows  stamen  movements  worthy  of 
attention. 


LABORATORY  PRACTICE 


5.  Dichogamy.     A  more  or  less  complete  separation  of  the 

sexes  is  made  in  perfect  flowers  by  the  maturation  of 
the  pollen  and  the  stigmas  at  different  times.  It  is 
found  both  in  wind-  and  in  insect-pollinated  flowers. 
The  effect  is  to  render  the  flowers  functionally  im- 
perfect although  perfect  morphologically ;  in  fact,  to 
render  them  more  or  less  perfectly  monoscious.  Such 
cases  are  very  common,  occurring  in  most  perfect 
flowers.  There  are  two  kinds  of  this  method  of 
separating  the  sexes,  or  dichogamy,  as  it  is  called  :  — 

(a)  Proterogyny  (or  protogyny),  where  the  stigma 

matures  first ;  and 

(b)  Proterandry  (or  protandry),  where  the  anthers 

open  before  the  stigma  is  receptive  (i.e.  ma- 
ture) . 

Dichogamy,  I  Prot°gynv> 
y'  1  Protandry. 

6.  Examine   a   flower    cluster    of    a    species    of    Figwort 

(Scrophularia)    or  of   the   common   Plantain,   and 

notice :  — 

(a)  That  in  the  upper  flowers  the  stigmas  are  pro- 
truded while  the  anthers  are  still  unopened. 

(£)  In  the  lower  flowers,  the  anthers  are  opening, 
but  the  stigmas  are  withered. 

(<:)    Is  this  protogyny  or  protandry? 

7.  Examine   the  flower  clusters  of  a  Geranium  or  some 

kind    of   Mallow    (Malva,  Lavatera,   Abutilon,    or 

Hibiscus}  and  notice :  — 

(a)  That  in  the  upper  flowers,  the  anthers  are  shed- 
ding their  pollen,  but  that  the  stigmas  are  not 
opened,  while 

(£)  In  the  lower  flowers,  the  anthers  are  empty  and 
the  stigmas  are  open. 


CHAP,  xxn     WIND-  AND  INSECT-POLLINATION  99 

(r)   Is  this  protogyny  or  protandry? 

8.  Heterostyfy. 

(a)  Examine  flowers  of  a  number  of  different  plants  of 
the  Bluet  (Houstonia  coerulea)  or  of  some  species 
of  Primrose,  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  fact  that  some  flowers  have  long  styles  and  stamens 

inserted  about  half-way  up  the  tube  of  the  corolla, 
while 

2.  Others  have  short  styles  and  the  stamens  inserted  near 

the  top  of  the  tube  of  the  corolla. 

3.  Explain,  if  you  can,  how  this  structure  serves  the  same 

purpose  as  a  separation  of  the  sexes  in  these  flowers. 

4.  (Examine,  also,  the  stigmas  and  pollen  of  both  kinds 

of  flowers  under  the  compound  microscope.) 

9.  Examine  the  Purple  Loosestrife  (Ly  thrum  Salicaria) 

or  the  Swamp  Loosestrife  (Nesaa  or  Decodoti)  in  the 
same  way,  and  notice  that  there  are  three  kinds  of 
flowers,  representing  three  lengths  of  filament  and 
three  lengths  of  styles.     What  is  the  use  of  this  ? 
10.    Examine  flowers  from  a  number  of  plants  of  Esch- 

scholtzia  and  notice  :  — 

(a)  The  fact  that  in  some  flowers  two  of  the  four  styles 
are  longer  than  the  other  two.  What  advantage 
does  the  plant  derive  from  this  ? 


LABORATORY  PRACTICE       CHAP,  xxm 


CHAPTER   XXIII 

SELF-POLLINATION 

CROSS-POLLINATION  seems  to  be  the  rule.  Many  flowers, 
however,  are  so  constructed  thatx  if  they  fail  to  be  cross- 
pollinated,  they  are  self-pollinated.  But  such  flowers  pro- 
duce fewer  and  less  vigorous  seeds  than  the  cross-polli- 
nated flowers.  But  some  flowers  are  especially  constructed 
for  self-pollination  alone.  They  are  called  cleistogamous 
flowers. 

I.  Examine  the  greenish  flowers  (produced  close  to  the 
ground)  of  the  Fringed  Polygala  (P.  paucifolia  and  P. 
pofygama,  of  the  East  or  any  Pacific  Coast  species)  and. 
notice  :  — 

1.  The   contrast   in  color   between   them   and  the  upper 

flowers. 

2.  The  fact  that  fertilization  takes  place  when  the  flowers 

are  very  small,  for  the  ovary  begins  to  enlarge  very 
soon. 

3.  The  fact  that  the  flowers  never  open. 

(Dissection  to  demonstrate  the  floral  organs  is  rather  too 
difficult  for  beginners.) 

4.  Make  sketches  and  notes. 


ANTHOTAXY/;,   \  .J  lot'. 


CHAPTER   XXIV 

ANTHOTAXY 

ANTHOTAXY  treats  of  the  arrangement  of  flowers  upon  the 
stem.  Flowers  are  borne  either  singly  or  in  clusters.  The 
advantage  of  flowers  being  brought  together  into  clusters  is, 
that  the  same  pollinating  agency,  bringing  pollen  to  one 
flower,  may  benefit  the  rest  or  at  least  some  of  them.  In 
this  way  the  flowers  "  club  together,"  as  Grant  Allen  says, 
to  share  favorable  pollinating  influences.  We  shall  study  a 
few  of  the  more  important  common  arrangements. 

I.  The  Raceme.  —  Examine  a  flower  cluster  of  the  Lily 
of  the  Valley,  Red-hot- Poker  Plant,  Zygadenus,  Currant,  or 
similar  plant  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  general  shape  of  the  cluster  (elongated}. 

2.  The  main  stem  with 

3.  The  flowers  arranged  at  different  heights. 

4.  The  order  of  blossoming,  beginning  at  the  base  and  pro- 

ceeding towards  the  top. 

5.  Examining  each  flower,  notice  :  — 

6.  The  short  stalk,  of  nearly  the  same  length  in  each  flower. 

7.  The  small  leaf  (or  leaf  scale)  in  whose  axil  each  flower 

is  borne.     (Notice  that  consequently  all  the  flowers 
are  lateral  structures.) 

8.  Make  a  sketch  and  diagram  to  show  these  points  and 

label  the  parts,  as  follows  :  — 

(a)  Peduncle,  the  main  axis  or  stem. 


102  cj  iLABQK;ATaRY  PRACTICE  CHAP.  xxiV 

(&}    Pedicels,  the  stalks  of  the  individual  flowers. 
(f)  Bracts,   the   leaves   or   scales   subtending   each 
flower. 

II.  The  Corymb.  —  Examine  the  flower  cluster  of  a  Haw- 
thorn and  notice  :  — 

1 .  The  general  shape  of  the  cluster  {flat-topped} . 

2.  The  peduncle. 

3.  The  pedicels  of  different  lengths,  so  as  to  bring  all  the 

flowers  to  the  same  level. 

4.  The  order  of  blossoming.     Compare  it  with  that  of  the 

raceme. 

5.  That  all  the  flowers  are  lateral  axillary  structures. 

6.  Make  a  diagram  to  show  these  points. 

III.  The   Umbel.  —  Examine   the   flower   cluster  of  an 
Onion  or  a   Pelargonium  (the  so-called  Geranium   of  the 
gardens)  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  pedicels  of  equal  length. 

2.  The  fact  that  they  all  spring  from  the  same  point. 

3.  Make  out  the  order  of  blossoming  if  you  can. 

4.  Make  a  diagram  of  an  umbel. 

IV.  The  Compound  Umbel.  —  Examine  the  flower  cluster 
of  a  Carrot,  Parsnip,  Fennel,  Caraway  Seed,  or  Poison  Hem- 
lock and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  fact  that  a  number  of  small  umbels  are  themselves 

arranged  after  the  fashion  of  an  umbel. 

2.  Study  one  umbellet  (small  umbel)  as  directed  in  III. 

3.  Notice  the  circle  of  bracts  at  the  base  of  the  umbel 

(called  an  involucre}. 

4.  The  circle  of  smaller  bracts  (bractlets}  at  the  base  of 

each  umbellet  (called  an  involucel}. 


CHAP,  xxiv  ANTHOTAXY  103 

5.    Make  a  diagram  to  show  these  points. 

V.  The  Spike.  —  Examine  the  flower  cluster  of  one  of 
the  various  species  of  Plantain  and  notice  :  — 

1.  Its  general  shape. 

2.  The  order  of  blossoming. 

3.  The  long  peduncle. 

4.  The  sessile  (i.e.  without  pedicels)   flowers.      (Lateral, 

axillary  structures  here  also.) 

5.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  this. 

VI.  The  Spadix.  —  Examine   the   flower  cluster   (often 
erroneously  called  a  flower)  of  the  Calla  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  broad  white  bract  (called  in  this  case,  a  spathe)  at 

the  base  of  the  flower  cluster. 

2.  The  general  shape  of  the  flower  cluster. 

3.  The  peduncle. 

4.  Whether  the  flowers  are  sessile  or  not.     (Lateral  and 

axillary  ?) 

5.  The  order  of  blossoming  (noticing  that  the  flowers  are 

imperfect  with  pistillate  below  and  staminate  above). 

6.  The  fleshy  consistency  of  the  whole  cluster. 

7.  What  is  the  spathe  for  ?    Why  is  it  so  conspicuous  ? 

8.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  Calla. 

9.  Compare  it,  if  possible,  with   the   Flamingo   Plant  or 

Anthurium  of  the  greenhouse  and  notice  the  same 
parts,  but  also  noting  the  very  different  color  of  the 
spathe. 

VII.  The  Head.  —  Examine  the  flower  cluster  of  a  Red 
Clover,  Lantana,  or  Verbena  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  general  shape  of  the  cluster. 

2.  The  insertion  of  the  flowers. 


104  LABORATORY  PRACTICE  CHAP,  xxiv 

3.  The  order  of  blossoming. 

4.  Whether  the  flowers  have  pedicels  or  not. 

5.  Make  a  diagram  of  the  cluster  studied. 

VIII.  Indeterminate  and  Determinate  Anthotaxy.  —  The 
order  of  blossoming  in  all  the  clusters  studied  thus  far,  has 
been  practically  the  same ;  that  is,  from  below  upward  or,  in 
the  flattened  clusters,  from  without  inward.     All  arrange- 
ments having  this  order  of  blossoming  are  classed  under  the 
head  of  indeterminate  anthotaxy.     But  in  some  clusters,  the 
order  of  blossoming  is  just  the  opposite  ;  that  is,  from  above 
downward,  or  in  the  case  of  flat- topped  clusters,  from  within 
outward.     Such  arrangements  fall  under  the  head  of  deter- 
minate anthotaxy.     The  cyme  is  the  most  common  example. 

Another  distinction,  and  the  one  upon  which  the  order  of 
blossoming  depends,  is  that,  in  indeterminate  anthotaxy,  the 
flowers  are  all  lateral,  while,  in  determinate,  they  are  all 
terminal. 

IX.  The  Cyme.  —  Selecting  a  Begonia   (preferably  one 
of  the  "  tuberous  "  species  with  lax  flower  clusters  and  large 
flowers),   examine   several  clusters   of    different   ages   and 
notice : — 

i..  That  the  central  flower  blossoms  first. 

2.  That  the  two  axes  (one  at  each  side)  next  the  central 

flower,  elongate,  bear  clusters  of  buds  and  that  the 
central  bud  of  each  cluster  blossoms. 

3.  That  the  two   axes  adjacent  to  each  of  these   central 

flowers  repeat  the  same  process  and  so  on  regularly 
for  several  times. 

4.  Make  diagrams  to  show  this. 

5.  Notice  also  that  all  the  flowers  are  terminal  upon  short 

branches. 


ANTHOTAXY  105 


X.    In  reviewing  the  work  on  flower  clusters,  be  careful  to 
consider  the  following  points  :  — 

1.  The  exact  difference  between  the  determinate  and  inde- 

terminate anthotaxy. 

2.  What  characters  have-the  following  indeterminate  clusters 

in  common  :    raceme,  corymb,  and  umbel? 

3.  How  may  they  be  distinguished  from  one  another? 

4.  What  characters  have  the  following  indeterminate  clusters 

in  common  :    spike,  spadix,  and  head? 

5.  How  may  they  be  distinguished  from  one  another? 

6.  How  may  the  group  of  clusters  mentioned  in  2  be  dis- 

tinguished from  those  mentioned  in  4? 

7.  Write  out  concise  (i.e.  using  no  unnecessary  words)  defi- 

nitions of  all  the  flower  clusters  you  have  studied. 

XL   Many  flowers  are  not  in  clusters  at  all,  but   occur 
singly.     They  may  be  :  — 

1 .  Terminal  in  some  cases,  as  in  the  Rose,  but  mostly 

2.  Axillary,  at  least  if  considered  very  carefully. 


106  LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


CHAPTER   XXV 

METAMORPHOSIS 

THUS  far  everything  that  we  have  studied  has  been  either 
root,  stem,  or  leaf,  or  a  combination  of  these.  The  flower 
itself  is  nothing  more  than  an  altered  branch,  and  we  may 
consider  briefly  the  arguments  for  considering  the  various 
floral  organs  to  be  simply  leaves,  modified  to  perform  the 
special  duties  of  reproducing  the  plant  by  seed. 

I.  Position  of  the  Flower  upon  the  Stem. — Looking  back 
over  our  study  of  anthotaxy,  we  find  that  the  flowers  are 
either  terminal  (either  solitary  terminal  flowers  or  in  deter- 
minate clusters)  or  lateral  and  axillary  (either  solitary  axil- 
lary flowers,  or  in  indeterminate  clusters). 

Turning  back  to  our  study  of  buds,  we  find  that  they  were 
either  terminal  or  lateral  structures  and  that  the  ordinary 
lateral  buds  were  axillary.  From  leaf  buds  grow  branches ; 
from  flower  buds  grow  branches  with  their  leaves  altered  to 
form  the  various  parts  of  the  flower. 

Consequently  we  see  that  the  flower  occupies  exactly  the 
same  position  upon  the  stem  which  an  ordinary  branch  does, 

II.  The  parts  of  the  flower  follow  the  laws  of  phyllotaxy 
in  their  arrangement.  —  The  parts  of  the  flower  are  arranged 
in  whorls,  with  the  whorls  alternating  in  most  flowers,  and 
consequently  follow  the  cyclical  arrangement  (see  Chapter 


METAMORPHOSIS  107 


VII,  §  III),  even  where  the  phyllotaxy  of  the  plant  in  gen- 
eral is  spiral.  But  we  have  in  many  plants  a  change  from 
the  one  arrangement  to  the  other  upon  the  same  plant  evi- 
denced even  by  the  ordinary  foliage  leaves. 

III.  The  parts  of  the  flower  grade  into  one  another ;  that 
is,  give  evidence  that  they  are  all  modifications  of  the  same 
kind  of  structures.     The  evidence  here  is  of  two  kinds. 

1 .  (a)  Examine  the  flower  of  a  white  Water-Lily  (Nymphaa) . 

Passing  from  the  outside,  the  sepals  are  partly  green 
and  partly  white  ;  the  white  petals  grow  narrower 
and  begin  to  show  small  anthers  at  their  tips ;  the 
white  portion  becomes  narrower  and  narrower  until 
the  typical  stamens  are  found. 

(3)  The  Sweet-scented  Shrub  (  Calycanthus)  shows  sepals 
gradually  passing  into  petals,  petals  into  stamens, 
and  stamens  into  pistils.  It  is  difficult  to  tell  in 
some  cases  whether  we  are  examining  stamens 
or  pistils. 

2.  In  double  flowers  such  as  Roses,  stamens  are  transformed 

into  petals  by  cultivation,  and  in  the  double  Althaea 
(Hibiscus  Syriaca)  even  the  stigmas  become  petaloid  ; 
and,  upon  opening  the  ovary,  the  ovules  are  often 
found  to  be  changed  to  petal-like  bodies. 

(The  pupil  should  examine  all  double  flowers  for 
evidence  and  make  notes.) 

IV.  Green  Flowers.  —  Occasionally  Roses,  Trilliums,  Fig- 
worts,  Buttercups,  and  other  flowers  are  found,  in  which  some 
or  all  of  the  floral  organs  are  changed  into  green  leaves. 
Examples  of  such  flowers  are  to  be  sought  and  examined. 
This  is  called  "reversion  to  a  primitive  condition," 


io8  LABORATORY   PRACTICE  CHAP,  xxv 

V.  These  four  kinds  of  evidence  support  the  doctrine 
called  the  doctrine  of  the  metamorphosis  of  parts,  which  holds 
that  the  flowering  plant  has  only  three  kinds  of  structures, 
root,  stem,  and  leaf,  and  that  it  produces  structures  to  do  all  its 
work  by  altering  (or  modifying)  one  or  more  of  these  three 
parts.  We  found  this  to  be  true  in  studying  the  bud  scales 
(Chapter  VIII),  Protection  (Chapter  X),  Storage  (Chap- 
ter XI),  Devices  for  Climbing  (Chapter  XII),  Epiphytes, 
Parasites,  and  Saprophytes  (Chapter  XIII),  Insectivorous 
Plants  (Chapter  XIV),  Vegetative  Reproduction  (Chap- 
ter XVI)  ;  and  now  we  find  that  the  complicated  structures 
necessary  for  seed  reproduction  form  no  exception. 


FRUITS 


CHAPTER   XXVI 

FRUITS 

AFTER  the  two  nuclei,  the  one  from  the  pollen  tube  and 
the  one  in  the  ovule,  have  united,  important  changes  take 
place  in  the  ovule.  From  the  resulting  nucleus  and  the 
parts  immediately  surrounding  it,  the  embryo  is  formed  while 
the  rest  of  the  ovule  is  transformed  into  seed-coats,  endo- 
sperm, etc.  But  the  ovary  surrounding  the  ovules,  also  grows 
and  undergoes  changes,  and,  gradually,  the  ripened  structure 
called  the  fruit  is  formed.  The  fruit  is,  strictly  speaking, 
the  ripened  ovary  ami  its  contents. 

In  many  cases,  the  petals  and  stamens  fall  away  soon  after 
fertilization  is  accomplished  or  remain  in  a  withered  condition, 
but  do  not  undergo  any  further  changes..  The  calyx  often 
remains  without  further  change  during  ripening,  but  may  fall 
away  also. 

But  in  many  cases,  also,  one  or  more  of  the  circles  of 
structures  outside  the  pistils  may  remain,  undergo  further 
growth,  and  form  with  the  altered  ovary  and  its  content  of 
seeds  a  complex  body  which  is  also  commonly  spoken  of  as 
the  fruit ;  even  the  receptacle  is  sometimes  enlarged  and 
made  a  part  of  the  fruit  in  this  looser  sense.  Consequently 
we  find  a  considerable  variety  of  kinds  of  fruits. 

The  fruit  serves  two  purposes  :  — 

1.  It  protects  and  helps  nourish  the  ripening  seeds. 

2.  It  assists  in  the  scattering  or  dispersal  of  the  seeds. 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


It  is  especially  from  this  latter  point  of  view  that  we  shall 
study  fruits.  It  is  very  necessary  that  the  seeds  should  be 
scattered  in  such  a  way  that  the  plants  produced  from  them 
may  not  grow  so  near  to  one  another  as  to  be  limited  for 
space  in  which  to  grow.  Some  fruits  are  evidently  so  con- 
structed as  to  send  their  seeds  only  a  short  distance,  others 
so  as  to  scatter  them  to  a  considerable  distance.  Some 
simply  expel  their  seeds  to  a  comparatively  small  distance 
from  where  they  were  produced,  while  others  make  use  of 
animals,  of  the  wind,  and  of  water  to  send  their  seeds  a 
greater  distance  away. 

Fruits  are  classified  according  to  their  consistency  into 
fleshy  and  dry  fruits.  Dry  fruits  are  classified  into  dehiscent 
and  indehiscent,  according  to  whether  they  split  open  or  not. 


CHAP.  XXVII  FLESHY  FRUITS 


CHAPTER   XXVII 

FLESHY   FRUITS 

WE  shall  be  able  to  find  many  fruits  in  which  all  or  a  por- 
tion of  the  ripened  ovary  wall  (called  in  these  cases,  as  well 
as  in  those  of  dry  fruits,  the  pericarp}  is  soft  and  fleshy. 
The  fruits  help  to  disperse  the  seeds  they  contain  by  being 
eaten  by  animals  (particularly  by  birds).  In  such  cases  the 
outer  fleshy  portion  is  digested,  and  the  seeds,  protected  by 
their  own  resistant  coats  or  by  a  hardened  portion  of  the 
pericarp,  remain  undigested,  pass  from  the  intestine  of  the 
animal  with  the  other  excreta,  and  are  thus  left  at  a  greater 
or  less  distance  from  the  places  where  they  were  produced. 

In  studying  fleshy  fruits  we  distinguish  two  general 
classes  :  — 

1.  Berries,  in  which  the  entire  wall  is  fleshy  and 

2.  Drupes  or  Stone  Fruits,  in  which  the  outer  portion  of  the 

pericarp  wall  is  fleshy,  but  the  inner  wall  is  hard  and 
resistant. 
We  shall  study  the  stone  fruit  first. 

I.  The  Drupe. — Take  a  ripe  Peach,  Apricot,  Cherry,  or 
Plum,  examine  it  carefully  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  general  shape,  size,  color,  odor,  etc. 

2.  The  point  of  attachment. 

3.  The  small  protuberance  at  the  other  end  (where  the  base 

of  the  style  joined  the  ovary). 


ii2  LABORATORY   PRACTICE  CHAP,  xxvn 

4.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  fruit  studied. 

5.  Why  do  these  fruits  remain  hard  and  green  until  the  seeds 

are  nearly  ripe  and  then  become  soft  and  bright- 
colored? 

II.  Cut  a  ripe  Peach,  Cherry,  or  Plum  into  two  longitudi- 
nal halves  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  outer  skin  of  the  pericarp. 

2.  The  fleshy  middle  portion  of  the  pericarp,  called   the 

sarcocarp. 

3.  The  inner  stony  portion  of  the  pericarp,  the  putamen, 

enclosing 

4.  The  seed,  whose  seed-coats  are  thin  and  delicate. 

5.  Make  a  sketch  of  one  of  the  cut  surfaces. 

III.  The   drupes  just   studied  are  all  formed  from  the 
ovary  of  a  simple  pistil,  whose  ovary  was  one-celled  and  one- 
seeded.     Drupes  occur   also   in   the    Huckleberries,  Bear- 
berries,  Manzanitas,  etc.,  but  contain  several  putamina.     In 
such  cases  they  are   distinguished  from  berries  with  some 
difficulty,  the  putamina  looking  much  like  seed-coats. 

IV.  The  Berry.  — Take   a  Cranberry,  examine  it   care- 
fully, and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  general  shape,  size,  and  color. 

2.  The  short  stalk  (or  the  place  where  it  was  attached). 

3.  The  four  blunt  teeth  surrounding  a  hollow  at  the  opposite 

end.  (These  are  the  tips  of  the  sepals  which  are 
adherent  to  the  ovary  and  help  to  form  the  pericarp 
of  the  fruit.) 

4.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  these  characters  and  label. 

V.  Cut  the  berry  being  studied  across  at  the  equator  and, 
examining  one  of  the  cut  surfaces,  notice  :  — 


CHAP.  XXVII  FLESHY  FRUITS  113 

1.  The  fleshy  pericarp  enclosing 

2.  Four  spaces  (the  cells)  >  in  each  of  which  are 

3.  Several  seeds. 

4.  Make  a  sketch  of  one  of  the  cut  surfaces  and  label. 

VI.  Gooseberries,    Currants,    Bananas,    Tomatoes,    and 
Grapes  are  also  good  typical  berries  (in  the  last  two  the 
pericarp  consists  of  the  changed  ovary  wall  simply,  while 
in  the  others,  as  in  the  Cranberry,  the  pericarp  is  the  ovary 
wall  plus  the  adherent  calyx-tube),  but  the   seeds  appear 
buried  in  fleshy  material.     There  are  also  several  kinds  of 
fruits  that  are  really  berries  and  yet  have  certain  peculiar- 
ities.    Such  are  i\\epome,  the  hespcridium,  and  \h&  pepo. 

VII.  The  Pome.  —  Examine  a  ripe  Apple  and  notice  :  — 

1.  Its  general  size,  shape,  color,  and  odor.      UJ^-N 

2.  The  stalk  at  one  end. 

3.  The  five}  sepal-lobes  in  the  depression  at  the  other. 

4.  Make  a  sketch  and  label. 

VIII.  Cut  the  Apple  across  at  the  middle  and,  examining 
the  cut  surface  carefully,  notice  :  — 

1.  The  outline  of  the  section. 

2.  The  five  openings  (cells)  each  with  a  papery  wall.     (This 

can  be  demonstrated  by  prying  it  away  from  the  flesh. 
It  represents  the  wall  of  the  ovary  and  forms  with 
No.  3  the  "core"  of  the  apple.) 

3.  The   fleshy  portion   outside   of  No.   2,  bounded   by  a 

greenish  lineJrom 

4.  The  outer  flesh  bounded  upon  the  outside  by     : 

5.  The  outside  skin. 

6.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  section  and  label  the  parts. 

7.  (Notice  the  tough  seed-coats.) 


II4  LABORATORY   PRACTICE  CHAP,  xxvn 

IX.  Cut  the  pome  being  studied  into  two  halves  (length- 
wise) and,  examining  one  of  the  crt  surfaces,  notice  :  — 

1.  The  general  shape  of  the  surface. 

2.  The  cells  and  the  seeds. 

3.  The  papery  core. 

4.  The  irregular  core  flesh. 

5.  The  outer  flesh. 

6.  The  outer  skin. 

7.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  cut  surface  and  label. 

X.  The   Hesperidium.  —  Take   a  Lemon  or  an  Orange, 
examine,  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  general  shape,  size,  color,  and  odor. 

2.  The  point  at  which  it  was  attached. 

3.  The  protuberance  at   the  other  end   representing  the 

Ib^ef  "endx  of  the  style. 

4.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  fruit  studied. 

XI.  Cut  the  Lemon  or  Orange  across  the  middle  and, 
examining  one  of  the  cut  surfaces,  notice :  — 

1.  The  outer  rather  thick  "  rind." 

2.  The  inner  fleshy  portion  separated  into  several  distinct 

portions  by  walls  (septa),  running  from  the  rind  to 
the  centre.     (These  are  the  cells  of  the  fruit.) 

3.  The  juicy   pulp   filling   the    cells,   in  which    (in   most 

Lemons  and  Oranges)  may  be  found 

4.  The  seeds.     Notice  the  character  of  the  seed-coats  and 

the  attachment  of  the  seeds. 

5.  Make  a  diagram  of  the  cross-section  and  label  the  parts. 

XII.  The  Pepo. — Take  a  Cucumber,  Melon,  Gourd,  or 
Pumpkin,  examine  carefully,  and  notice  :  — 


CHAP,  xxvn  FLESHY   FRUITS  115 

1.  The  general  shape,  size,  color,  and  odor. 

2.  The  point  of  attachment. 

3.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  fruit  being  studied. 

XIII.  Cut  the  pepo  being  studied  across  the  middle  and, 
examining  one  of  the  cut  surfaces  carefully,  notice  :  — 

1.  The  outer,  tougher  portion  of  the  "rind." 

2.  The  softer  inner  portion. 

3.  The  seeds  imbedded  in  a  pulpy  mass. 

4.  The  attachments  of  the  seeds. 

5.  The  resistant  seed-coats. 

6.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  section  studied. 

XIV.  Have  you  ever  seen  animals  eating  fleshy  fruits? 
If  so,  write  down  what  kinds  of  animals  were  doing  the 
eating  and  what  kinds   of  fleshy  fruits  were  being  eaten. 
How  does  this  help  the  dissemination  of  the  seeds  ? 


n6  LABORATORY   PRACTICE  CHAP,  xxvm 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

DRY   DEHISCENT   FRUITS 

DEHISCENT  fruits  are  those  which  split  open  to  release  or 
even  expel  the  seeds.     We  may  distinguish  two  classes  :  — 

1.  Explosive  Fruits,  which  forcibly  expel  some  or  all  of 

their  seeds,  sending  them  out  into  the  air. 

2.  Those  which  simply  open  and  allow  the  seeds  to  fall  out, 

leaving  them  to  be  dispersed  by  other  means. 

EXPLOSIVE  FRUITS 

I.  Take  the  ripening  pods  of  some  member  of  the  Pea 
Family,  such  as  Wistaria,  Pea,  Bean  (with  less  fleshy  pods), 
etc.,  and,  leaving  them  in  a  dry  place,  examine  them  from 
time  to  time.     Sooner  or  later,  they  will  be  found  to  have 
split  longitudinally,  each  half  or  valve  of  the  pod  will  be 
found  to  have  twisted  itself  and  to  have  thrown  most  of  the 
seeds  to  some  distance. 

Make  sketches  and  notes  to  illustrate  this. 

II.  Take  also  the  ripe  pods  of  some  species  of  Violet  and 
watch  them  in  the  same  way. 

III.  Take  plants  of  the  garden  Balsam  (Impatient},  or  of 
Oxalis,  and  touch  the  ripe  fruits. 

Notice  how  they  suddenly  open  and  eject  the  seeds. 
Make  notes  and  sketches. 


CHAP,  xxvin  DRY  DEHISCENT  FRUITS  117 


METHODS  OF  DEHISCENCE 

The  fruit  produced  by  the  ripening  of  a  compound  pistil 
is  called  a  capsule,  if  dry  and  dehiscent.  The  capsules  open 
to  release  the  seeds  in  several  different  ways. 

IV.  Loculicidal    Dehiscence.  —  Take   capsules   of   Iris, 
Funkia  or  Day  Lily,  Althaea,  Hibiscus,  Gerardia,  etc.,  which 
have  split  open  and  notice  how  the  splitting  has  taken  place. 

1.  The  splitting  is  longitudinal. 

2.  The  split  is  directly  along  the  middle  line  of  the  outer 

wall  of  one  of  the  cells  (loculi)  of  the  capsule. 

3.  The  partitions  remain  coherent  with  the  outer  walls  and 

separate  from  one  another  at  the  centre. 

4.  Make  a  diagram  —  or  rather  a  ground  plan  —  to  show 

this  method  of  dehiscence. 

V.  Septdcidal   Dehiscence. — Take  capsules   of  Azalea 
Rhododendron,  Turtle  Head  ( Chelone) ,  or  St.  John's  Wort, 
which  have  split  open  and  notice  how  the  splitting  has  taken 
place. 

1.  The  splitting  is  longitudinal. 

2.  Each  partition  (septum]  is  split  into  two  thin  pieces. 

3.  The  partitions  remain  adherent  to  the  outer  walls  and 

separate  from  each  other  at  the  centre. 

4.  Make  a  ground  plan  of  this  method  of  dehiscence  and 

show  how  it  differs  from  the  loculicidal  method. 

VI.  Septifragal     Dehiscence.  —  Take    capsules    of    the 
Morning  Glory  which  have  become  thoroughly  dried,  but 
which   are   either  just  splitting  or  which   are   still  whole, 


n8  LABORATORY  PRACTICE  CHAP,  xxvm 

and  using  a  pin  or  needle,  gently  pry  off  the  outer  parts. 
Notice :  — 

1.  That  the  splitting  is  longitudinal. 

2.  That  the  splitting  is  directly  along  the  line  of  the  par- 

titions. 

3.  That  the  three  partitions  {septa}  are  left  standing  (by 

the  complete  falling  away  of  the  valves) . 

4.  Make  a  diagram  to  show  this  method  of  dehiscence  and 

contrast  it  with  each  of  the  methods  just  studied. 

VII.  Circumscissile   Dehiscence.  —  Take   plants   of  the 
Common  Pimpernel  (Anagallis),  the  Portulaca  of  the  gar- 
dens, or  the   Purslane,  which  have  ripe,  dry  capsules  and 
examine  the  method  of  splitting. 

1.  The  splitting  is  horizontal  (at  the  equator,  so  to  speak, 

of  the  capsule) . 

2.  The  upper  part  falls  off,  leaving 

3.  The  lower  portion  as  a  sort  of  cup  still  holding  most  of 

the  seeds. 

4.  Make  sketches  to  show  this  method  of  dehiscence. 

VIII.  Dehiscence  by  Pores.  —  Examine  dry  capsules  of 
some  Poppy  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  general  shape. 

2.  The  swollen  portion. 

3.  The  terminal  discoid  portion  with  scalloped  edges  (the 

remains  of  the  stigmatic  portion) . 

4.  The  row  of  small  holes  or  pores  at  the  top  of  the  swollen 

portion  and  just  under  the  edge  of  the  disk. 

5.  Make  sketches. 

6.  How  do  the  pores  arise  ?    (For  determining  this,  examine, 

if  possible,  ripe  capsules  just  forming  pores.) 


CHAP.  XXVIII  DRY  DEHISCENT  FRUITS  119 

IX.  Determine,  wherever  possible,  what  advantage  each 
method  of  dehiscence  has  for  the  particular  kind  of  plant 
in  which  it  is  found. 

X.  Write  out  concise  and  clear  definitions  for  the  kinds 
of  dehiscence  you  have  studied. 


LABORATORY  PRACTICE  CHAP,  xxix 


CHAPTER   XXIX 

DRY   INDEHISCENT   FRUITS 

THE  dry  fruits  (that  is,  those  whose  pericarp  at  maturity 
is  not  fleshy)  which  do  not  open,  remain  to  be  considered. 
If  we  were  to  go  into  the  classification  of  such  fruits,  we 
should  need  to  consider  in  each  case  whether  it  resulted 
from  the  ripening  of  a  simple  or  of  a  compound  pistil,  dis- 
tinguishing two  classes  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Nuts,  dry  indehiscent  fruits  from  compound  pistils. 

2.  Achenes,  dry  indehiscent  fruits  from  simple  pistils. 

But  without  considering  this  matter  too  carefully,  we  shall 
devote  our  attention  to  the  different  methods  and  agencies 
employed  by  these  fruits  to  travel  abroad  and  to  carry  the 
seeds  contained  within  them  to  some  more  or  less  distant 
place. 

The  three  different  agencies  most  commonly  employed 
are  :  — 

1 .  Animals  of  various  kinds. 

2.  The  wind. 

3.  Water. 


SEED    DISPERSAL   BY  ANIMALS 


CHAPTER   XXX 

SEED   DISPERSAL   BY   ANIMALS 

WE  have  seen  how  fleshy  fruits  may  be  dispersed  or 
scattered  abroad  by  animals,  but  they  do  not  as  a  rule  eat 
dry  fruits  unless  it  is  for  the  sake  of  the  seeds,  in  which  case, 
of  course,  the  seed  is  crushed  and  digested,  and  ceases  to 
exist.  But  most  dry  fruits,  achenes  or  even  dry  fruits  dehis- 
cent only  after  a  considerable  interval  of  time,  have  appen- 
dages of  various  kinds  which  catch  hold  of  animals  and  are 
transported  by  them. 

I.  Take  a  fruit  of  the  Common  Clotbur  (Xanthium)  and 
notice :  — 

1.  Its  shape,  size,  color,  and  consistency. 

2.  The  two  strong  spines  or  hooks  at  the  top. 

3.  The  smaller  hooks  thickly  placed  upon  the  sides. 

4.  Make  a  sketch  of  this  "fruit,"  or  more  properly  bur. 

5.  The  involucre  (enclosing  two  achenes)  is  modified  to 

form    the    bur.      A    similar   case    is    the   Common 
Burdock. 

II.  Examine  an  achene   of  the    Beggar-ticks  (Bidens) 
and  notice :  — 

1.  The  body  of  the  achene,  its  shape,  etc. 

2.  The  terminal  bristles   (varying  in  number  in  different 

species)  provided  with 


LABORATORY   PRACTICE 


3.  Small  downward-pointing  hooks  or  barbs  (readily  visible 

under  a  lens) . 

4.  Make  an  enlarged  sketch  to  show  these  points. 

III.  Examine   the    fruit  of  the  Common   Bedstraw  or 
Goose  Cleavers  and  notice:  — 

1.  The  two  small  rounded  portions  (called  mericarps). 

2.  The  hooked  bristles  with  which  each  is  provided. 

3.  Make  a  sketch  of  this  fruit. 

IV.  Gather  and  study  all  the  specimens  of  fruits  which  you 
can  find  provided  with  organs  for  attachment  to  animals. 

V.  But  some  fruits  possess  spines  which  do  not  appear 
to  serve  the  purpose  of  aiding  dispersal  by  animals.     The 
Chestnut,  Chinquapin,  Beechnut,  and  Thorn  Apple  {Datura) 
are  provided  with  spines  surrounding  the  fruit,  but  the  cov- 
ering opens,  and  the  seeds  drop  out.     The  spines  in  these 
cases  probably  protect  the  seeds,  while  ripening,  from  squir- 
rels and  such  animals.     (Some  ripening  berries  have  spines 
which  fall  off  when  the  seeds  are  mature.) 

VI.  Small  animals,  such  as  squirrels,  store  away  nuts  and 
grain  in  the  ground  and  forget  the  place  or  are  killed.     The 
seeds  of  these  fruits  may  germinate.     This  is  a  very  effec- 
tive means  for  seed  dispersal  in  some  regions,  but  of  rarer 
occurrence  than  the  other  methods.     Ants,  too,  store  seeds 
and  fruits  in  their  underground  homes. 


SEED   DISPERSAL  BY  WIND  123 


CHAPTER   XXXI 

SEED    DISPERSAL   BY   WIND 

IN  order  that  seeds  may  be  carried  any  appreciable  dis- 
tance by  the  wind,  they  must  be  rendered  buoyant.  The 
structures  existing  for  this  purpose  may,  for  the  most  part,  be 
classed  under  three  heads,  —  wings,  tufts  of  hairs,  and  blad- 
ders. These  are  more  often,  perhaps,  attached  to  the  fruits, 
but  may,  also,  be  attached  directly  to  the  seeds. 

I.  Samara,  or  Key  Fruit.  —  Examine  dry,  ripe  fruits  of 
Ash,  Elm,  Ailanthus,  or  Maple  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  swollen  seed-bearing  portion  and 

2.  The  flattened  wing. 

3.  Throw  up  some  specimens  into  the  air  and  notice  the 

twirling   motion   which   helps   to   support  them  for 
some  distance. 

4.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  fruit  studied,  to  show  the  parts 

and  describe  the  motion  in  the  air. 

II.  "Winged  Seeds.  —  Examine  some  of  the  dry  seeds  of 
Catalpa,   Yam    (Dioscorea),    Butter-and-Eggs    (Linaria), 
Trumpet  Creeper,  Day  Lily  (Funkia),  or  of  the  Pine  or 
Cypress,  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  compressed  seed-bearing  portion,  with 

2.  The  broader  or  narrower  wing. 

3.  Make  a  sketch  tp  show  these  characters. 
\ 


124  LABORATORY  PRACTICE  CHAP,  xxxi 

III.  Fruits  with  Tufts  of  Hairs.  —  The  achenes  of  many 
of  the  Composite  Family,  particularly  such  as  those  of  the 
Dandelion  {Taraxacum) ,  or  the  western  Troximons  {Agose- 
ris),  are  provided  with  parasol-shaped  tufts  which  act  after 
the  fashion  of  a  parachute.     The  student  should  examine 
and  draw  as  many  of  these  as  possible.     (Examine  also  ripe 
Thistle  Heads.) 

IV.  Seeds  with  Tufts  of  Hairs.  —  Examine  the  dry  seeds 
of  the  Milkweed  or  of  Cotton  and  notice  the  arrangement 
of  hairs  and  how  they  assist  the  seed  in  being  carried  by  the 
wind.     Make  sketches. 

V.  Bladdery  Fruits.  —  Examine  the  ripe  and  dry  fruits 
of  the  Bladder  Nut   (Staphylea),  of  Isomeris,  or  of  some 
Astragalus  species  with  swollen  pods  and  notice :  — 

1.  The  general  size,  shape,  color,  etc. 

2.  The  much  distended  ovary  wall. 

3.  The  buoyancy  of  the  fruit. 

4.  Make  sketches. 

VI.  Examine  the  dry,  ripe  fruits  of  the  Hop,  Hop  Horn- 
beam, or  of  the  Ground  Cherry  (Physalis)  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  bladdery  portion,  either  an  enlarged  investing  bract 

(Hop)  or  the  enlarged  calyx  {Physalis}. 

2.  Make  sketches  and  notes. 

VII.  Tumble  Weeds.  —  Many  species  of  plants  which  are 
annuals  dry  up   entirely  upon  the   ripening  of  the  seeds, 
break  away  from  their  attachment,  and  are  rolled  about  from 
place  to  place  by  winds.     They  drop  seeds  as  they  travel 
and  thus  often  disperse  their  seeds  over  a  very  wide  area. 


CHAP,  xxxn          SEED   DISPERSAL  BY  WATER  125 


CHAPTER   XXXII 

SEED    DISPERSAL   BY  WATER 

MANY  marsh  plants  growing  near  running  or  even  quiet 
waters,  upon  the  margins  of  the  ocean,  or  in  the  water  itself, 
depend  in  most  cases  upon  the  currents  of  water  or  upon  the 
breezes  at  the  surface  of  the  water  for  their  dispersal.  They 
are  usually,  therefore,  rendered  buoyant  in  some  way  or 
other. 

I.  Examine   a   Cocoanut,   still    retaining    its   husk,   and 
notice :  — 

1.  The  general  shape,  size,  color,  etc. 

2.  The  attached  end. 

3.  The  opposite  pointed  end. 

4.  The  three  blunt  angles  (longitudinal). 

5.  Make  a  sketch  to  show  these  points. 

II.  In  a  Cocoanut  which  has  been  cut  into  two  longitu- 
dinal halves,  examine  one  of  the  cut  surfaces  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  outer  thin,  firm,  smooth  skin. 

2.  The  fibrous  portion  of  the  husk. 

3.  The  shell  (seed-coats)  of  the  nut. 

4.  The  "  meat "  (endosperm)  of  the  seed. 

5.  The  small  embryo  under  the  "  soft  eye  "  at  one  end. 

6.  Make  a  sketch  of  one  of  the  cut  surfaces. 

III.  Examine  the  bladdery  fruits  of  some  Sedge  or  the 
seeds  of  the  Water-Lily,  if  obtainable  and  notice  their  buoy- 
ancy in  water. 


126  LABORATORY  PRACTICE  CHAP,  xxxm 


CHAPTER   XXXIII 

SPORE  REPRODUCTION 

THE  plants  possessing  reproduction  by  spores  are  usually 
much  more  simple  than  those  which  reproduce  by  seeds. 
Many  of  them  are  decidedly  microscopic  and  hardly,  if  at 
all,  visible  except  under  the  lenses  of  the  compound  micro- 
scope. But  others,  such  as  the  ferns  and  the  mosses,  are 
larger  and  more  complicated  plants,  approaching  very  nearly 
to  the  seed-plants  in  the  degree  of  the  complexity  of  their 
structure  and  their  size. 

The  principal  groups  of  plants  which  reproduce  by  spores 
are  the  Ferns  (in  the  broadest  sense  of  the  word),  the  Mosses, 
the  Sea-weeds  or  Algae,  the  Lichens,  and  the  Fungi  (including 
Toadstools,  Puff-balls,  Mildews,  Rusts,  Smuts,  and  Moulds) . 

Spores  are  of  several  kinds,  and  need  extended  study  with 
the  compound  microscope  and  more  complicated  methods 
than  we  have  been  using.  We  may,  however,  study  several 
kinds  in  a  rough  sort  of  way. 

I.  Examine  a  Fern  Plant  removed  from  the  soil,  and 
notice :  — 

1.  The  stem  (usually  underground). 

2.  The  leaves,  their  shape,  size,  etc. 

3.  The  dots  upon  the  backs  of  the  leaves.    These  are  the 

son,  which  are  of  different  shapes  in  different  Ferns 
and  which,  in  some  cases,  are  covered  partially  by  a 
thin  skin,  called  the  indusium. 

4.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  Fern  Plant  to  show  these  points. 


CHAP,  xxxill  SPORE  REPRODUCTION  127 

II.  Selecting  a  leaf  upon  which  the  sori  are  growing, 
remove  a  few  sori  and  examine  them  under  the  lens  of  the 
dissecting  microscope.     Notice  :  — 

1 .  The  small  stalked  bodies,  sporangia  or  spore  cases,  most 

of  them  split  open  at  one  side. 

2.  The  very  small  brown  bodies  scattered  about,  which  are 

the  spores. 

(These  points  will  show  much  more  plainly  under 
a  compound  microscope.  Simply  place  the  sporan- 
gia, spores,  etc.,  upon  a  glass  slide,  moisten  with 
strong  alcohol,  add  a  drop  of  water,  and  cover  with 
a  cover  glass.) 

III.  Examining  the  fruiting  plants  of  some  Moss  such  as 
the  Hair-Cap  Moss  (Poly  trie  hum)  or  Funaria,  notice  :  — 

1.  The  rooting  portion. 

2.  The  stem  with 

3.  Its  leaves. 

4.  The  capsule  upon  its  stalk  or  pedicel. 

5.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  Moss  Plant. 

IV.  Examine  the  capsule  more  carefully  with  the  aid  of 
the  lens  and  notice  :  — 

1.  The  calyptra  (hairy  in  Polytrichum  but  smooth,  thin,  and 

hyaline  in  most  Mosses).     Remove  it  and  examine  — 

2.  The  operculum,  a  small  cap,  which  may  be   picked  or 

pried  off,  and  then  appears 

3.  The  peristome,  a  row  of  teeth  about  the  mouth  of  the 

capsule  proper. 

4.  Make  sketches  of  these  various  parts. 

Take  a  thoroughly  dry  capsule  and,  removing,  if 
necessary,  the  calyptra  and  operculum,  tear  open  the 


128  LABORATORY  PRACTICE  CHAP,  xxxiu 

body  and  examine  the  fine,  dust-like,  greenish  spores 
(with  the  compound  microscope,  if  possible) . 

V.  Take  fresh  specimens  of  the  Common  Mushroom  (or 
any  Toadstool  with  gills)  which  has  thoroughly  expanded 
and  notice  : — 

1.  The  stem  or  stipe. 

2.  The  expanded  top,  the  pileus,  upon  the  under  side  of 

which  are  found 

3.  The  gills  or  lamella,  numerous  thin  plates,  colored,  and 

radiating  from  the  stipe  outward. 

4.  Make  sketches. 

VI.  Removing   the    stipe,   place    the    pileus,   with   gills 
downward  upon  a  piece  of  white  paper  and  cover  with  a 
bell  glass  or  cake  cover.    After  several  hours  a  " spore  print" 
will  be  found  upon  the  paper  resembling  the  arrangement  of 
the  gills.     Examine  the  spores  of  this  print  with  a  lens, 
or  with  the  compound  microscope.     Notice  the  color  and 
minute  size  of  the  spores.     Make  a  sketch  of  the  spore  print. 

VII.  Examine  again,  or  review,  the  Bread  Mould  (confer 
Chapter  XIII,  §  VIII),  and  notice  the  sporangia  and- spores. 

VIII.  Our  study  of  spores  has  necessarily  been  very  slight 
and  fragmentary.     We  find,  however,  that  they  differ  from 
seeds  in  two  principal  respects :  — 

1.  Their  minuteness.    (Of  course,  some  seeds  are  very  small 

for  seeds  and  some  spores  are  very  large  for  spores, 
yet  their  very  much  smaller  size  will  usually  distin- 
guish spores  from  seeds.) 

2.  The  fact  that  the  spores  are  simple  practically  homoge- 

neous bodies  without  an  embryo.  This  can  be  seen 
under  a  compound  microscope  and  when  the  spores 


CHAP.  XXXIII  SPORE  REPRODUCTION  129 

germinate.  Such  spores  as  those  of  the  Bread  Mould 
and  of  the  Mushroom  might  not  be  expected  to  con- 
tain an  embryo,  but  when  we  find  no  embryo  in  those 
of  mosses  and  ferns,  we  see  the  necessity  for  distin- 
guishing* spore  from  seed  reproduction.  If  we  could 
pursue  the  subject  further,  we  should  see  further 
reasons  for  emphasizing  this  distinction. 

IX.   Spores  are  never  preceded  by  any  structures  which 
can  be  called,  botanically,  flowers,  that   is,   by  structures 
containing  stamens,  or  pistils,  or  both. 
K 


APPENDIX    I 

SUGGESTIONS   TO   STUDENTS 

Spirit  of  Study.  —  The  students  should  attempt  to  get  at 
the  reasons  which  lead  to  the  selection  of  a  natural  science 
as  a  portion  of  their  course  of  study.  It  is  not  only  a  matter 
of  acquiring  a  certain  amount  of  information  which  will  be  a 
source  both  of  profit  and  of  pleasure  in  the  future,  but  also 
to  train  certain  faculties  to  act  in  an  orderly  and  effective 
manner.  To  learn  to  observe  carefully  is  a  matter  of  the 
utmost  importance  in  all  the  ordinary  things  of  life.  Many 
of  our  mistakes  are  the  direct  result  of  hasty  observation  and  • 
inference.  Without  accurate  observation,  we  can  have  no 
certainty  as  to  the  accuracy  of  our  inferences  and  whenever 
we  think  -it  over  we  realize  that  even  the  simple  matter  of 
recognizing  an  object,  its  shape,  etc.,  is  really  a  matter  of 
inference.  But  after  we  make  out  what  the  shape  and 
general  structure  of  an  object  is,  we  have  still  to  infer  from 
these  details  its  use,  relations  to  other  objects,  etc. 

Consequently,  in  laboratory  work  of  any  kind,  the  name  of 
the  object  or  of  its  parts  are  purely  matters  of  convenience, 
to  assist  the  memory  and  to  enable  us  to  talk  to  others  con- 
cerning these  things,  but  the  principal  matter  in  hand  is  to 
notice  every  detail  and  variation  in  form  both  of  the  object 
being  studied  and  of  its  parts;  then,  from  this  as  a  basis,  to 
reason  out  why  the  object  and  its  parts  are  constructed  as  they 
are ;  and  finally  to  make  a  permanent  record,  both  of  the 


132  APPENDIX   I 


observations  and  of  the  conclusions  arrived  at,  in  such  a  way 
that  the  memory  may  be  readily  refreshed  concerning  them. 

Students  should  look  to  the  teacher  for  inspiration  as  to 
the  proper  spirit  with  which  to  regard  their  work.  Many 
times  the  reason  why  particular  attention  is  paid  to  certain 
things  may  not  be  apparent,  but  this  should  furnish  no 
excuse  for  not  carrying  the  work  through  thoroughly  as 
directed.  If  the  reason  is  obscure  at  the  time,  we  should 
have  perfect  confidence  that  it  will  be  revealed  later  on ;  as 
the  work  proceeds,  the  plan  underlying  it  will  unfold  itself, 
and  we  shall  finally  find  ourselves  in  possession  of  the  whole 
and  recognize  the  value  of  each  of  its  parts.  We  should  en- 
trust ourselves  to  the  teacher's  guidance  with  perfect  faith 
that  all  which  now  seems  dark  and  hidden  will  be  cleared 
away  before  the  course  is  completed. 

Instruments.  —  Few  instruments  are  absolutely  necessary 
for  the  work  planned  in  this  book.  The  pupil  should,  how- 
ever, possess  the  following  :  — 

Laboratory  note-book, 

Pencils  and  eraser, 

Pair  of  small  forceps, 

Scalpel  or  penknife, 

Pocket  lens  or  dissecting  microscope, 

Pair  of  needles  in  handles. 

Note-Book. —  The  note-book  should  be  of  fair  size.  One 
with  a  page  about  10  inches  long  and  6  to  8  inches  wide  is 
preferred  by  the  writer.  The  paper  should  be  white,  un- 
ruled, fairly  heavy,  and  with  sufficient  gloss  to  take  the  mark 
of  the  pencil  readily,  but  not  so  much  so,  as  to  make  erasing 
difficult. 

Pencils.  —  A  fairly  hard  pencil  should  be  used,  certainly 
hard  enough  so  that  it  will  be  possible  to  keep  it  well 


APPENDIX   I  133 


sharpened.  Some  students  will  need  to  use  a  harder  pencil 
than  others  and  each  will  need  to  experiment  a  little  per- 
haps. The  teacher  can  advise  in  such  matters. 

Eraser.  —  A  good  soft  rubber  eraser  will  answer  very  well, 
but  students  may  consult  their  own  tastes  in  this  matter. 

Forceps.  —  For  handling  small  objects,  even  very  slender 
fingers  are  too  large  and  clumsy,  and  the  student  should 
possess  a  pair  of  small  forceps  for  this  purpose.  Steel  ones 
are  the  best,  but  brass  ones  may  be  used.  The  tips  of  the 
forceps  should  be  fairly  slender,  and  the  points  should  be 
roughened  (not  toothed)  upon  the  inside  so  as  to  grasp  the 
object  firmly.  The  "  spring  "  of  the  forceps  should  be  fairly 
but  not  too  strong.  Too  strong  a  spring  tires  the  fingers 
unnecessarily,  while  too  weak  a  spring  (so  that  the  forceps 
do  not  open  promptly)  renders  them  practically  useless. 

Scalpel.  —  A  small  scalpel  is  most  useful  for  cutting  small 
objects.  A  penknife,  provided  the  blades  are  kept  sharp, 
will  do  very  well.  A  small  razor  with  one  side  ground  nearly 
flat  is  perhaps  even  more  useful  at  times  than  either  the 
penknife  or  scalpel. 

Pocket  Lens.  —  A  pocket  magnifying-glass  mounted  in 
metal  or  hard  rubber  (or  better  a  series  of  two  or  three 
mounted  lenses)  is  indispensable  for  the  examination  of 
small  parts.  Almost  any  of  the  common  ones  in  the  market 
will  do.  A  simple  dissecting  microscope  is,  however,  very 
much  more  effective.  Some  of  the  cheaper  ones  will  answer 
very  well,  but  the  only  really  satisfactory  one,  is  one  possess- 
ing besides  a  good  stage  (upon  which  the  object  may  be 
placed)  and  a  good  adjustable  arm  for  carrying  the  lens, 
also  a  mirror,  adjustable  to  any  angle.  (Such  a  model  as 
the  "  Educational  Dissecting  Microscope  "  of  the  Bausch 
and  Lomb  Optical  Company  of  Rochester,  N.Y.). 

Dissecting  Needles.  —  For  use  with  the  dissecting  micro- 


134  APPENDIX  I 


scope  the  student  will  need  a  pair  of  needles  with  handles. 
They  may  be  purchased  already  made,  or  they  may  be  pre- 
pared readily  by  forcing  the  "  eye  "  end  of  a  needle  into 
some  such  object  as  the  wooden  portion  of  a  penholder. 
The  needles  should  not  be  either  very  coarse  or  very  fine. 

Drawing.  —  The  student  should  not  begin  to  draw  the 
object  until  he  is  sure  that  he  knows  what  he  is  to  represent. 
Examine  the  object  thoroughly,  make  out  the  points  called 
for  in  the  directions  and  then  draw  the  object  in  such  a 
position  that  these  structures  or  details  asked  for  may  be 
brought  out  most  clearly  and  advantageously.  It  is  the 
greatest  of  all  mistakes  to  start  to  draw  the  object  before  it 
has  been  thoroughly  examined. 

The  size  of  the  drawing  depends  partly  upon  the  size  of 
the  object  and  partly  upon  the  number  and  nature  of  the 
details  to  be  represented.  Large  objects  must  be  reduced 
in  the  drawing  in  order  to  be  represented  at  all,  while  smaller 
objects  must  be  enlarged  or  the  details  of  structure  either 
cannot  be  represented  at  all  or  will  be  so  small  and  crowded 
together  as  to  make  their  recognition  difficult. 

The  outline  of  the  object  and  of  its  parts  must  be  sharp 
and  clear.  The  drawings  made  in  this  course  are  to  repre- 
sent the  objects,  and  not  to  suggest  them.  Consequently, 
shading  should  be  avoided  as  a  usual  thing  unless  the 
student  has  considerable  skill  in  that  line  of  work.  The 
shading  done  by  the  student  usually  obscures  the  details  of 
structure  without  adding  anything  either  to  the  scientific  or 
the  artistic  worth  of  the  drawing.  Good,  continuous,  bold 
lines  are  the  best.  Sketchy,  disconnected,  indefinite  out- 
lines are  to  be  avoided  and  yet  these  are  the  ones  which 
the  student  usually  draws  unless  a  special  effort  is  made  to 
avoid  them. 

While  the  size  of  the  drawing  may  suit  the  details  to  be 


APPENDIX   I  135 


represented  and  the  area  of  the  page  used,  the  relative  pro- 
portions of  the  object  should  be  represented  as  accurately 
as  possible.  Especially  this  matter  needs  attention,  when 
the  drawings  are  either  enlarged  or  reduced  copies  of  the 
object.  The  relative  curvature  of  the  different  lines  and  the 
accuracy  of  the  angles  go  hand  in  hand  with  proper  general 
proportions,  and  if  the  student  will  try  to  keep  these  points 
carefully  in  mind,  his  success  in  drawing  will  be  greater  than 
it  could  possibly  be  otherwise. 

Labelling  and  Notes.  —  Drawings  and  notes  are  for  future 
use,  it  must  be  remembered,  and  not  introduced  simply  to 
give  the  student  something  to  do,  as  is  sometimes  thought. 
He  should  represent  accurately,  concisely,  and  clearly  the 
results  of  his  study  and  be  able  to  recall  the  work  in  its 
detail  to  his  mind  at  any  time,  as  well  as  to  make  his  results 
comprehensible  to  another.  Each  drawing  should  be  made 
large  enough  and  its  parts  distinct  enough,  to  call  up  a 
mental  picture,  perceptible,  in  most  of  its  details  at  least, 
at  a  glance.  This  must  be  borne  in  mind,  also,  in  labelling 
the  drawings. 

1.  Label   the   entire   drawing,  stating  what  it  represents; 

how  much  enlarged  or  reduced. 

2.  Label  each  of  the  parts  so  distinctly  that  you  may  not  get 

two  names  mixed  ;  nor  apply  them  to  the  same  part ; 
nor  have  to  turn  the  drawing  round  one  way  to  read 
some  names,  and  other  ways  to  read  others. 

3.  Leave  a  space  about  the  drawing  with  its  labelling  and 

place  your  notes  near  to  it,  but  not  crowded  up 
to  it. 

As  to  notes,  the  questions  asked  in  the  book  should  be 
answered  in  regular  order  and  anything  shown  by  the  speci- 
men, but  not  by  the  drawing,  should  be  written  down. 


I36  APPENDIX  I 


Say  what  you  have  to  say  in  as  few  words  as  possible  con- 
sistent with  clearness  and  completeness.  Let  your  notes  be 
concise  but  to  the  point,  but  do  not  let  conciseness  interfere 
with  the  completeness  of  your  statement.  See  to  it,  that 
your  note  is  worded  in  such  a  way  as  to  convey  to  others 
whatever  it  should  to  you. 


APPENDIX    II 

SUGGESTIONS   TO    TEACHERS 
INTRODUCTORY 

THIS  little  book  was  written  perhaps  more  for  the  teachers 
than  for  the  pupils.  Many  teachers  ask  to  have  some  book 
recommended  which  will  give  to  them  a  definite  idea  of 
what  to  do  in  an  elementary  course  in  laboratory  practice 
suitable  for  the  secondary  schools.  Many  teachers  are 
troubled  about  the  method  of  teaching  to  be  pursued,  the 
amount  of  ground  to  be  covered,  and  the  materials  to  be 
used.  The  writer  has  attempted  to  indicate  these  in  the 
outline  for  the  student,  but  feels  that  he  may  be  able  to  help 
many  teachers  by  adding,  in  this  appendix,  certain  additional 
directions  not  to  be  incorporated  into  the  outline  without 
confusing  the  student. 

Method  and  Spirit  of  Instruction.  —  The  teacher  may 
read  what  is  said  to  the  student  under  the  head  "Spirit," 
and  also  what  has  been  said  in  the  preface  upon  this  point. 
The  ideal  way  is  to  teach  the  student  without  any  book, 
giving  him  the  object,  requiring  him  to  work  out  the  struct- 
ure and  make  the  proper  inferences,  aiding  him  by  means 
of  questions  designed  to  stimulate  his  thoughts  and  to  lead 
him  in  the  proper  direction.  But  many  teachers  have  too 
many  students  and  too  little  time  to  apply  this  method,  and 
must  use  the  outline. 

The  outline  needs  a  good  teacher  to  be  really  effective. 
The  teacher  should  be  enthusiastic,  that  is,  should  enter 


138  APPENDIX    II 


thoroughly  into  the  spirit  of  the  nature-study  proposed. 
The  plant  should  be  to  the  teacher,  a  living  thing  whose  life- 
history  is  a  reality  and  he  must  contrive  to  raise  the  minds 
of  his  pupils  above  the  drudgery  of  the  work  to  the  lessons 
to  be  drawn  from  it.  No  book  can  take  the  place  of  the 
teacher  ;  it  can  only  assist  and  counsel. 

The  outline  will  admit  of  much  amplification  in  most 
subjects,  and  the  teacher  will  find,  even  in  using  it,  much 
chance  for  original  methods  and  subject  matter. 

Material.  —  The  selection  of  material  has  been  made  with 
much  care  by  the  writer  and  he  believes  that  he  has  suc- 
ceeded, in  almost  every  case,  in  recommending  something 
available  throughout  the  more  populous  portions  of  this 
country,  from  ocean  to  ocean.  On  account  of  the  wide 
diversity  in  flora,  the  writer  has  recommended  garden  plants 
wherever  possible.  The  teacher  should  become  acquainted 
with  the  local  flora,  however,  and  study  it  with  reference 
to  the  particular  needs  of  the  laboratory  instruction.  Such 
a  knowledge  will  enable  the  teacher  to  introduce  mate- 
rial, often  more  suitable  than  that  recommended  or  to 
substitute  one  thing  for  another  which  is  not  accessible  for 
the  time  being. 

Preserved  material  must  necessarily  be  used,  instead  of 
living,  in  many  cases.  Many  things,  such  as  leaves,  twigs 
with  buds,  dry  fruits,  etc.,  may  be  simply  dried,  and  laid 
away ;  but  flowers,  fleshy  fruits,  etc.,  must  be  preserved  in 
liquid.  One  of  the  best  preservatives  is  Formalin *  or  For- 
malose,  a  40  %  solution  of  Formaldehyde.  It  is  a  clear  liquid 
with  a  penetrating  and  irritating  odor,  and  is  prepared  for 
use  by  mixing  one  or  two  parts  (by  measure)  with  100  parts 

1  Any  druggist  can  readily  obtain  the  Formalin,  Formalose,  or  40% 
Formaldehyde,  all  three  being  practically  the  same  article  under  different 
trade  names. 


APPENDIX   II  139 


of  water  (distilled  water  is  best,  but  any  clean  water  will 
do).  The  best  jars  in  which  to  store  materials,  are,  in  the 
writer's  estimation,  the  "Lightning"  or  the  "Hero  "  preserve 
jars  which  come  in  half-gallon,  quart,  pint,  and  half-pint 
sizes.  In  such  jars  specimens  of  flowers,  fruits,  buds  etc., 
may  be  preserved  for  dissection,  or  insectivorous  plants, 
parasites,  etc.,  may  be  stored  for  class  demonstration. 

A  collection  of  material  put  up  in  these  ways,  either  dried 
or  in  liquid,  especially  of  things  likely  to  be  unobtainable  at 
the  time  when  they  are  wanted,  will  greatly  facilitate  the 
teacher's  work  and,  in  the  suggestions  concerning  the  par- 
ticular chapters,  certain  farther  suggestions  will  be  given. 
Living  material  is,  in  general,  much  preferable  if  it  can  be 
obtained. 

Reading.  —  The  teacher  should  do  as  much  reading  as 
possible  to  broaden  his  horizon  and  a  list  of  books  is  given 
below  with  comments.  Under  the  notes  upon  each  chapter 
which  are  to  follow,  special  references  will  be  given  and  it 
will  be  well  to  recommend  some  of  these  particular  refer- 
ences to  the  pupils  ;  but  usually  after  their  laboratory  work 
upon  the  special  object  is  completed. 

Every  teacher  should  have  ready  access  to,  and  make  full 
use  of,  the  following  :  — 

Kerner  and  Oliver .l  The  Natural  History  of  Plants.  2  vol- 
umes (4  parts).  Henry  Holt  &  Co.  New  York.  1895. 

Lubbock  (John).  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves.  Macmillan 
&  Co.  London  and  New  York.  1894. 

Lubbock  (John).  A  Contribution  to  our  Knowledge  of  Seed- 
lings. 2  volumes.  Kegan  Paul,  French,  Trlibner,  &  Co. 
London.  1892. 

1  This,  although  an  expensive  book  (about  $15.00),  is  really  indispen- 
sable. The  abundant  and  excellent  illustrations  greatly  increase  its  useful- 


140  APPENDIX   II 


Gaye  (Selind).     The  Great  World's  Farm.      (2d  Edition.) 

Macmillan  &  Co.     London  and  New  York.     1894. 
Hardinge  (E.  At.).     With   the   Wild  Flowers.     The  Baker 

and  Taylor  Co.     New  York.     1894. 
Allen  (Grant).     The  Story  of  the  Plants.     D.  Appleton  & 

Co.     New  York.     1895. 
Weed  (Clarence  Moores).1    Ten  New  England  Blossoms  and 

their  Insect  Visitors.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.     Boston 

and  New  York.     1895. 

There  is  much  more  to  be  gained  by  having  a  few  good 
books  and  making  their  contents  thoroughly  familiar  to 
ourselves,  than  having  a  whole  library  simply  for  superficial 
acquaintance.  The  writer  has  recommended  these  few 
books  because  of  the  spirit  in  which  they  are  written,  as 
well  as  the  subject  matter.  The  teacher  may  look  to  them 
for  inspiration,  and  not  only  inspiration  in  a  general  way, 
but  also  in  a  particular  way,  with  reference  to  special  objects 
for  his  own  study  and  that  of  his  class.  They,  also,  of 
themselves  will  indicate  farther  reading. 

The  teacher  will  do  well  to  have  access  to  a  certain  num- 
ber of  text-books,  especially  those  treating  the  subject  wholly 
or  partially  from  a  laboratory  standpoint. 

Some  of  the  more  recent  and  most  suggestive  are  the 
following :  — 

Spalding  (Volney  M.).     Guide   to   the   Study  of  Common 

Plants.     An  Introduction  to  Botany.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Boston.     1894. 
Darwin  (Francis).     The  Elements  of  Botany.     Macmillan 

&  Co.     New  York.     1895. 
Bergen  (J.  K.).     Elements  of  Botany.    Ginn  &  Co.     Boston 

and  London.     1896. 

1  Although  this  refers  to  New  England  blossoms,  yet  plants  very  nearly 
related  to  several  of  them  being  found  in  most  parts  of  the  country,  its 
usefulness  is  not  confined  to  that  particular  corner  of  the  United  States. 


APPENDIX   II  141 


For  various  morphological  questions  and  especially,  for 
definitions,  both  teacher  and  students  should  consult  Gray's 
well-known  text-books  —  with  the  glossaries.  The  writer 
fully  believes  that  the  students  should  be  taught  to  define 
and  to  interpret  definitions,  and  that  it  is  well  for  them  to 
consult  several  glossaries  and  dictionaries ;  comparing  and 
selecting  the  good  definitions. 

Beyond  these  books  are  many  others,  but  the  writer 
believes  that  this  list  will  be  sufficient  for  a  beginning  and 
that  by  these  books  others  will  be  suggested. 

Reviews. — The  teacher  should  try  to  review  the  work  of 
each  chapter  with  the  students  at  the  close  of  the  work  upon 
it.  Quizzing  upon  the  special  points  brought  out  and  any 
questions  bearing  upon  them,  help  in  this.  Each  chapter 
should  be  a  sort  of  unit  in  the  minds  of  the  students,  and 
the  inter-relationships  of  the  various  units  making  up  the 
book  should  be  brought  out  and  emphasized. 

Time.  —  Each  laboratory  session  should  be  at  least  an 
hour  and  a  half  long.  Two  hours  is  about  the  best  labora- 
tory period  for  beginners.  Three  times  a  week  is  about  the 
proper  frequency  for  laboratory  exercises.  If  a  course  is  to 
run  through  the  year,  it  should  begin,  of  course,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  year,  i.e.  in  most  cases  in  the  late  summer  or 
early  autumn.  By  properly  preparing  certain  materials 
ahead,  the  course  as  laid  out  in  this  volume  may  be  given 
at  almost  any  time  of  the  year  and  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  material  be  procured  in  a  living  condition. 

Laboratories.  —  If  the  laboratory  can  have  tall,  wide  win- 
dows facing  mostly  to  the  north,  it  will  possess  more  advan- 
tages than  any  other.  But  almost  any  airy  and  well-lighted 
room  will  serve  very  well  for  students  beginning  in  this 
simple  way. 

Laboratory  Equipment  —  The  laboratory  should  possess 


I42  APPENDIX   II 


tables  and  chairs  conveniently  proportioned  and  arranged 
so  that  each  pupil's  place  may  be  as  well  lighted  as  possi- 
ble. If  dissecting  microscopes  such  as  those  recommended 
on  page  133  can  be  supplied  by  the  institution,  the  work 
will  be  much  facilitated.  Each  institution  should  possess 
at  least  one  compound  microscope  with  powers  ranging 
from  65  to  500  diameters,  for  demonstrating  points  un- 
satisfactorily brought  out  under  the  lenses  of  the  simple 
microscope.  However,  most  of  the  details  called  for  in 
the  laboratory  directions  may  be  fairly  satisfactorily  demon- 
strated under  the  lenses  of  a  good  dissecting  microscope. 


CHAPTER  I 

SEEDS 
General  Reading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  420-427. 
Gray,  Elements  of  Botany,  pp.   15-26  and  125-128;   Text- 
book, pp.  9-27  and  305-314. 
Lubbock,  Seedlings,  Volume  I,  pp.  4-8. 

THE  teacher  should  allow  the  laboratory  work  upon  seeds 
to  proceed  very  slowly,  taking  care  that  the  students  make 
their  observations  very  carefully,  finishing  the  work  called 
for  by  one  paragraph  before  proceeding  to  that  demanded 
by  the  next.  Very  careful  attention  should  be  paid  to  the 
manner  in  which  the  drawings  of  the  different  seeds  and 
their  contents  are  made.  They  are  very  easy  objects  for 
the  most  part;  each  detail  can  be  plainly  indicated  and 
labelled.  If  the  student  begins  his  work  properly,  the  future 
study  will  be  made  easier  and  better. 


APPENDIX  II  143 


I.  If  a  Bean  pod  is  not  available,  any  leguminose   pod 
resembling  it  will  do. 

II.  Beans  should  be  soaked  six  to  twelve   hours,  until 
fully  swollen  out.     The  larger  "  colored  "  Beans  are  the  best 
ones  for  study  ;  but  Lima  Beans  show  all  parts,  especially 
the  plumules,  very  well. 

4.   Strophiole;  read  Gray's  Text-book,  p.  308,  §  596. 
3,  5,  6,  etc.   Hilum,  Rhaphe,  Chalaza,  Micropyle  ;  read  Gray's 
Text-book,  p.  305,  §  588. 

VII.  Castor  Bean.  Read  Bastin,  Laboratory  Exercises 
in  Botany  (Philadelphia,  1895,  W.  B.  Saunders),  pp.  235- 
239  (with  figures). 

1.  The  Castor  Beans  in  the  market  are  of  two  kinds,  large 

and  small.     The  larger  ones  are  better.     They  do 
not  need  soaking  as  a  usual  thing. 

2.  Read  Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  pp.  93-95. 

IX.   Read    Gray,  Elements,  p.    21,  or   Text-book,  pp. 


X.  Read  Gray,  Elements,  pp.  25,  26,  and  Text-book, 
pp.  25,  26. 

Corn  should  be  soaked  in  warm  water  at  least  thirty-six 
hours,  to  become  well  swollen. 

XIII.   Read  Gray,  Elements,  p.  24. 

XV.  Read  Gray,  Elements,  pp.  23,  24,  and  Text-book, 
p.  23. 

"  Pine  Nuts,"  of  the  Pinon  or  Digger  Pines,  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  markets  of  many  western  and  Californian 
cities  in  the  autumn,  and  even  from  the  New  York  markets 


APPENDIX   II 


at  times.  But  teachers  may  obtain,  through  seedsmen,  the 
seeds  of  Pinus  Pinea,  P.  Cembra,  P.  Lambertiana,  P. 
edulis,  or  /*.  Sabiana,  all  of  which  are  large  and  good. 
The  seeds  do  not  need  soaking  at  all  in  water.  They  are 
better  without  it. 

XVIII  and  XIX.  The  teacher  should  not  confine  him- 
self to  the  tables,  summaries,  and  lists  of  questions  appended 
to  various  chapters,  but  should  ask  all  sorts  of  questions  to 
develop  and  implant  the  subject  in  the  student's  mind. 

XIX.  As  supplementary  work,  the  students  may  examine 
thin  sections  of  the  Bean,  Castor  Bean,  etc.,  under  the  com- 
pound microscope,  and  learn  to  apply  simple  tests  for  starch, 
cellulose,  proteids,  oils,  etc. 


CHAPTER  II 

SEEDLINGS 
General  Reading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  2,  pp.  598-623  (and  p.  650 

under  hypocotyl  =  caulicle). 
Lubbock,  Seedlings,  especially  Volume  I,  pp.  8-77. 
Gray,  Elements,  pp.  15-26;  Text-book,  pp.  9-27. 
Gaye,  The  Great  World's  Farm,  pp.  277-299. 

I,  II,  III.  Early  Peas  are  soaked  over  night,  then  placed 
upon  cotton  which  is  slightly  dampened,  covered,  and  kept 
in  a  room  at  about  70-75°  F.  The  caulicle  will  begin  to 
protrude  in  about  three  days. 

Beans  need  about  five  days. 

Corn  (soaked  thirty-six  hours)  needs  about  five  days. 


APPENDIX    II  145 


Morning  Glory  (soaked  over  night)  needs  about  three 
days. 

Onion  (soaked  over  night)  needs  from  eight  to  ten  days. 

The  caulicle  is  the  first  organ  to  protrude  beyond  the 
seed-coats  in  almost  all  ordinary  seeds.  A  detailed  con- 
sultation of  Lubbock's  Seedlings  will  show  this. 

IV,  V.  It  is  well  to  plant  in  loose  soil  (or  sawdust)  about 
three  lots  of  well-soaked  Beans  and  Peas.  The  first  lot  should 
be  planted  about  three  weeks  before  they  are  needed ;  the 
second  lot  a  week  later ;  the  third  lot  about  a  week  before 
they  are  needed.  In  regard  to  such  matters  as  having  seed- 
lings in  good  condition,  i.e.  particularly  in  the  right  stages 
for  class  work,  a  little  experimentation  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  will  afford  a  much  more  satisfactory  basis  for  the 
teacher  than  anything  else.  Seeds  vary  and  conditions 
vary.  A  good  florist,  to  advise  with  the  teacher,  or  even  to 
undertake  the  work  of  supplying  the  materials,  will  be  a 
great  help.  The  student,  however,  should  have  a  chance  to 
watch  the  seedlings  as  they  develop. 

VI.  Castor  Beans  should  be  soaked  in  warm  water  for 
about  twenty-four  hours,  sown  in  pots  or  a  box  of  loose 
earth,  about  four  weeks  before   they  are   wanted.      They 
usually  start  growing  one  or  two  at  a  time,  so  that  after 
three  or  four  weeks,  all  stages  in  germination  may  be  repre- 
sented in  the  same  pot.     The  teacher  should  request  the 
students  to  compare  the  caulicle  and  cotyledons  in  a  well- 
grown  seedling  with  those  organs  in  the  embryo,  as  regards 
both  size  and  color.    The  adult  leaf  mentioned  under  8,  may 
be  a  pressed  leaf,  if  fresh  ones  are  not  available. 

VII.  What  was  said  of  Peas  and  Beans,  applies  as  well  to 
Indian  Corn. 


146  APPENDIX  II 


VIII.  Onion  Seedlings  need  about  twenty  days  for  the 
cotyledon  to  develop  well  and  to  pull  the  seed-coats  out  of 
the  ground,  and  a  week  or  two  longer  before  any  plumule 
will  show. 

IX.  Pine  Seedlings  are  not  very  easy  to  obtain.      The 
smaller  seeds  (of  such  species  as  Pinus  Laricio  and  P.  Aus- 
triaca},   after   soaking   for    about   forty-eight   hours,   were 
planted  and  began  to  appear  in  eighteen  to  twenty  days  ; 
but  the  larger  seeds  (of  P.  Lambertiana  and  P.  Pinea)  did 
not  appear  until  after  thirty  (P.  Pinea)  to  fifty-three  days 
(P.  Lambertiana}.     Pine  seeds  may  be  obtained  from  the 
larger  seed  dealers,  but  few  out  of  many  sown  are  likely  to 
germinate. 


CHAPTER  III 

ROOTS 
General  Reading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  2,  pp.  749-767 ;  I,  Part  i, 

pp.  82-99. 

Allen,  The  Story  of  the  Plants,  pp.  53-63. 
Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  27-33. 
Gaye,  The  Great  World's  Farm,  pp.  124-148. 

I.  This  use  of  "  secondary  root "  and  of  "  adventitious 
root"   is   contrary   to   that   of    Gray's    Text-book,   but  is 
more  in  accord  with  the  general  usage  of  secondary  and 
adventitious. 

II.  Squash  Seedlings  are  not  always  easy  to  raise  within 
doors.     Care  should  be  taken  to  get  "  sound  "  seed  and  not 
to  keep  the  soil  too  damp.     A  few  good  seedlings  preserved 


APPENDIX   II  147 


in  formalin  solution  will  furnish  a  proper  safeguard  against 
the  failure  to  grow. 

III.  The  "  base  of  the  adult  cornstalk  "  may  simply  be 
dried  and  the  same  specimens  used  year  after  year. 

IV.  Read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  i,  pp.  86- 
91.     The  student  may  examine  the  root-hairs  under  the 
lenses  of  the  compound  microscope  and  even  study  the 
finer  structure  of  the  whole  root  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  function  of  each  of  the  different  tissues. 


CHAPTER  IV 

STEMS 
General  Reading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  2,  pp.  710-723,  and  724- 

736;  also  465-482. 

Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  45-51  (top)  and  69-85. 
Allen,  The  Story  of  the  Plants,  pp.  161-182. 

I.  Cosmos  stem  will  do  equally  well.     The  pieces  may 
be  dried  and  kept  in  that  condition  until  a  few  hours  before 
using,  when  they  should  be  placed  in  boiling  water  and 
allowed   to  stay  there    until   it   becomes    cool.      Formalin 
material,  however,  is  better,  and  a  supply  in  this  fluid  for 
smaller  classes  does  not  occupy  much  space. 

II.  It  is  well  for  the  teacher  or  the  assistant  to  prepare 
thin  sections  for  the  class.     Very  thin  and  uniform  sections 
may  be  cut  with  a  sharp  razor  in  such  a  hand  microtome  as 
that  designed  by  Professor  Bastin  (Bausch  and  Lomb  Optical 
Co.,  Rochester,  N.Y.,  No.  2550,  fifteenth  edition  of  their 


148  APPENDIX   II 


Catalogue).  Very  thin  sections  may  be  placed  in  strong 
alcohol  to  bleach,  and  kept  there  indefinitely.  They  should, 
however,  be  placed  in  water  for  about  an  hour  before  being 
examined. 

If  compound  microscopes  are  available,  the  study  of  the 
histology  of  the  stems  of  the  Sunflower,  Cosmos,  Corn,  Wal- 
nut, etc.,  may  be  carried  on  more  thoroughly,  and  several 
exercises  devoted  to  it. 

VI.  The  teacher  should  explain  thoroughly  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  ordinary  association  of  these  three  kinds  of 
structures. 

VII.  Indian  Corn  stem  may  be  preserved  in  the  same 
way  as  the  Sunflower  or  Cosmos  stem. 

VIII.  Sections  may  be  cut  in  the  same  way  as  in  the 
case  of  the  stem  of  the  Sunflower. 

X.   To  be  contrasted  with  the  statement  in  §  VI. 

XII.  The  Basswood  or  Linden  and  the  Sycamore  or  But- 
tonball  are  excellent  stems  for  this  purpose.  Sections  may 
also  be  cut  of  these  stems  upon  the  hand  microtome. 


CHAPTER  V 

LEAVES.  I 
General  Reading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  2,  pp.  593-597,  626-640. 
Allen,  The  Story  of  the  Plants,  pp.  33-53. 
Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  pp.  97-147. 
Gaye,  The  Great  World's  Farm,  pp.  157-176. 
Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  85-106;  Elements,  pp.  49-59. 


APPENDIX   II 


I,  7.  Read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  2,  p.  595 
(the  italicized  portion),  for  a  definition  of  a  leaf,  and  then 
the  discussion  leading  up  to  it  upon  pp.  593  and  594. 

I.  Any  simple  leaf  with  an  unlobed  blade,  a  good  petiole, 
and  stipules  will  do.  Apple  leaves,  Pear  leaves,  Quince 
leaves,  etc.,  are  good.  The  round-leaved  Pelargoniums 
also  have  good  leaves  for  this  purpose.  In  all  the  work 
upon  leaves  in  I-XII  the  specimens  may  be  dried  and  even 
glued  to  paper.  Fresh  living  specimens,  however,  are 
better. 

III.  The  Pittospomm  eugenioides  (with  yellowish  foliage 
and  black  twigs)  occasionally  grown  in  greenhouses  East, 
but  a  fairly  common  ornamental  shrub  in  middle  California, 
is  most  excellent  for  showing  the  netted  venation.  Species 
of  Cherry,  etc.,  are  also  very  good. 

V.  Besides  the  Lily  of  the  Valley,  the  leaves  of  Scoliopus 
Bigelovii  of  California,  of  the  Belhvorts  (Oakesia,  etc.), 
Cypripediums  (native  sp.),  etc.,  are  fairly  good. 

XII.  The  teacher  may  emphasize  the  descriptive  terms 
as  much  as  may  be  thought  best  under  the  circumstances. 
It  is  excellent  drill  to  make  the  students  apply  terms  with 
accuracy.  At  the  same  time,  suggestions  as  to  the  reasons 
for  the  various  shapes  will  be  found  in  the  reference  to  Lub- 
bock's  book  given  at  the  beginning  of  the  notes  upon  this 
chapter,  and  for  matters  of  the  same  kind  concerning  the 
different  character  of  different  leaf  surfaces,  read  Kerner 
and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  i,  pp.  307-325. 

XIII-XIV.  Read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part 
i,  pp.  279-283;  and  Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  85-90;  Ele- 
ments, pp.  142-144.  It  will  be  well  for  the  student  to  make 
a  careful  study  of  the  internal  structure  of  the  leaf,  with  the 


ISO  APPENDIX   II 


aid  of  the  compound  microscope.     The  function  of  each  of 
the  different  tissues  should  be  emphasized. 

XV.  Read  the  reference  in  Grant  Allen's  The  Story  of 
the  Plants,  given  above.  The  various  kinds  of  work  done 
by  the  leaves  should  be  very  decidedly  emphasized  by  the 
teacher. 


CHAPTER  VI 

LEAVES.  II 
General  Reading 

Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  106-110;  Elements,  pp.  60-62. 
Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  pp.  117-147. 

I.  Various  species  of  Aster,  Solidago,  Flax,  Butter-and- 
Eggs,  etc.,  will  do ;  in  fact,  any  species  with  well-developed 
sessile  leaves. 

II.  Plants  with  good  perfoliate  leaves  are  not  at  all  com- 
mon, and  at  present  the  writer  can  recommend  only  this 
species  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
European  Bupleurum  rotundifolium. 

III.  Eupatorium  perfoliattim,  the  common  Thoroughwort 
or  Boneset  of  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States,  is  also 
excellent.     Likewise  the  Fuller's  Teazel  common  in  many 
parts  of  the  country. 

IV.  Acacias  with  phyllodia  are  commonly  grown  through- 
out middle  and  southern  California  and  are  very  frequently 
met  with  in  the  greenhouses  in  the  rest  of  the  country.    Seed- 
lings are  not  uncommon  in  California. 

Read  Gray,  Text-book,  p.  no,  §  217;  Elements,  p.  61, 
§  162  ;  Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  pp.  120,  121. 


APPENDIX    II  151 


V.  Lathyrus  Aphaca  is  a  European  species  and  not  acces- 
sible, as  far  as  the  writer  knows,  to  students  in  this  country. 

The  student  may  be  shown  pictures  of  this,  and  the  rela- 
tionship to  the  forms  with  imparipinnate  and  cirrhiferous 
pinnate  leaves  brought  out. 

Read  Gray,  Text-book,  p.  109,  §  216,  and  pp.  100,  101, 
§  195  ;  Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  pp.  137,  138. 

VI.  Read  Gray,  Text-book,  p.  109,  §    215  ;    Lubbock, 
Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  pp.  106,  107. 

VII.  Read  Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  108,  109. 

VIII.  Read  Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and    Leaves,  pp. 
119,  121,  and  122,  Figs.  76  and  77  ;    Kerner  and  Oliver, 
Volume  I,  Part  i,  pp.  326  (under  "  Australian  Proteaceae  "), 
335  (bottom  line),  336,  and  II,  Part  i,  p.  471. 

The  Eucalyptus  species  are  abundant  in  California  and 
are  occasionally  found  in  greenhouses  in  other  parts  of  the 
country.  Dried  and  pressed  specimens  may  be  used  where 
fresh  material  is  not  available. 

IX.  The  so-called  "  Smilax  "  of  the  greenhouses  (Myrsi- 
phyllum  asparagoides  or  Asparagus  medeoloides}  is  very  gen- 
erally accessible  all  over  the  country.     In  studying  this  plant, 
it  is  well  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  we  consider  a  structure 
borne  in  the  axil  of  a  leaf  as  a  branch  structure,  and  a  struct- 
ure bearing  another  structure  in  its  axil  as  a  leaf  structure. 
These  points  cannot  be  emphasized  either  too  strongly  or 
too  often. 

Read  Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  65,  66,  §  127;  Elements, 
pp.  61,  62,  §  164. 

XI.  Read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  i,  p.  339 
(under  Oxalis). 


152  APPENDIX   II 


Read  also  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  i,  pp. 
338  (bottom)  and  339. 

XII.  Read  Kerner  and   Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  2,  pp. 
532-539- 

XIII.  Read  Gray,  Text-book,  p.  102. 

XIV.  Read  Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  p.  123. 

Live  Oaks  are  excellent  for  Californian  students.  Leaves 
of  the  so-called  Laurel  of  the  East  (Kalmia\  of  Rhododen- 
drons, Azaleas,  Hollies,  etc.,  are  also  excellent. 

XV.  Pressed  specimens,  illustrating  the  different  methods 
of  defoliation,  may  be  mounted  upon  sheets  of  Bristol  board. 

Read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  i,  pp.  355-361. 


CHAPTER  VII 

PHYLLOTAXY 
General  Reading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  i,  pp.  396-400 ;  Part  2, 

pp.  401-430. 

Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  pp.  97-118. 
Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  119-131 ;  Elements,  pp.  67-71. 

I.  Almost  any  plant  with  opposite  leaves  will  do  just  as 
well  as  Fuchsia.  It  is  recommended  because  it  is  usually 
very  readily  obtainable.  Erect  branches  are  desirable. 

III.  Any  plant  with  whorled  leaves  may  be  used.  Certain 
Lilies  (Lilium  sp.)  are  good.  The  Galium  species,  how- 
ever, occur  almost  everywhere. 


APPENDIX    II  153 


IV.  Elms,  Basswoods  or  Lindens,  Indian  Corn,  and  various 
Grasses  are  good.  But  Iris,  Hemerocallis  (Day  Lily),  etc., 
while  showing  the  two  ranks  excellently,  do  not  allow  the 
insertion  of  the  leaves  to  be  determined  with  sufficient 
readiness. 

VII.  Three-ranked  arrangements  are  by  no  means  com- 
mon.    Those  who  live  in  the  eastern  portions  of  the  United 
States  may  obtain  the  Veratrum  in  the  spring,  and  no  more 
excellent  object  can  be  found.     The  upright  shoots  of  Alders, 
Hazels,  and  Beeches  sometimes  show  it  very  distinctly,  and 
teachers  who   have   not   access  to    Veratnim  should  seek 
suitable  materials  from  these  plants. 

VIII.  The  upright  wand-like  shoots,  lighted   equally  or 
nearly  so  from  all  sides,  of  young  plants  or  of  branches 
from  the  roots  or  bases  of  the  plants  mentioned  should  be 
used.     Sumachs,  Willows,  and  Oaks  are  excellent.     Where 
Willows    have    been    pollarded,  the    adventitious    vertical 
branches  which  spring  out  make  excellent  objects,  especially 
in  the  case  of  the  broader  leaved  S.  discolor,  S.  cordata, 
and  S.  lucida. 

IX.  Read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  i,  p.  400, 
for  further  cases. 

XI.  Cones  of  Larch,  Sequoia  gigantea,  Sugar  Pine,  etc., 
are  excellent.  Read  carefully  the  references  to  this  subject 
in  Kerner  and  Oliver  and  in  Gray,  recommended  above. 
The  numbering  of  the  scales  of  cones  is  an  excellent  task  for 
students  to  perform  outside  of  the  laboratory. 

XIII,  XIV.  Read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  2, 
pp.  414-417  and  419,  420,  especially  compare  Figs.  106 
and  109 ;  Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  pp. 
108-111. 


154  APPENDIX   II 


XV.  Read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume   I,   Part   2,  pp. 
405  (bottom  line)-407. 

XVI.  Another  view   is   frequently  expressed ;  for  which 
read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  2,  p.  402. 

Read  Gray,  Text-book,  p.  127. 

The  latest  writers  disagree  with  Sachs,  however,  and  con- 
sider these  spirals  as  secondary  and  the  number  of  ranks 
as  greater  than  three. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

BUDS 
General  Reading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  25-45. 
Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  40-45 ;  Elements,  pp.  27-32. 

MATERIAL,  consisting  of  branches  with  buds,  may  be  tied 
up  into  bundles  and  dried.  If  placed  in  boiling  water  and 
allowed  to  remain  there  until  the  water  is  cool,  all  the  parts 
will  swell  up  to  their  normal  size  again  and  will  serve  the 
same  purposes  as  fresh  material. 

V.  The  large-leaved  Maple  of  California  and  the  Red  or 
the  Silver  Maple  of  the  East  are  excellent. 

VI.  Material  should  be  fresh  or  preserved  in  formalin. 
Read    Gray,  Elements,  p.  63,  §  166  (Buckeye);  Text- 
book, p.  116,  §  227  (Buckeye). 

The  scales  of  large  specimens  of  the  Buckeye  or  of  the 
Red  Currant  may  be  carefully  picked  off,  pressed,  and  the 
series  of  transitions  from  scales  to  leaves  pasted  upon  cards 
and  given  to  the  students  in  that  form. 


APPENDIX   II  155 


The  teacher  should  explain  homology  and  analogy  at  this 
point  and  emphasize  all  cases  hereafter. 

VII.  The  Pittosporum  is  the  P.  eugenioides,  common  in 
cultivation  in  California,  with  yellowish   green  foliage  and 
black-stemmed  twigs.     The  winter  bud  is  pronounced  and 
the  homology  between  the  bud-scale  and  the  blade  of  the 
leaf  is  readily  demonstrated.     Series  of  scales  pressed  and 
mounted  upon  cards  may  be  made  in  either  of  these  cases 
or  the  class  may  work  from  fresh  or  formalin  material. 

VIII.  The   same   recommendations   apply   also   to   this 
paragraph. 

Read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  i,  pp.  351-353, 
Fig.  91  (Tulip  Tree)  and  Fig.  92  (Beech). 

IX.  Compare   Kerner  and   Oliver,  Volume    I,   Part    i, 
Fig.  90,  3  and  4  (p.  349)  (Walnut). 

XII.   Read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp. 

25-28,  29,  30,  37-45. 

CHAPTER  IX 

PRJEFOLIATION 
General  Reading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  i,  pp.  347-355. 
Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  132,  133  (also  134-140  for  flower  buds 
especially). 

FORMALIN  or  fresh  material  is  necessary  for  the  study  of 
praefoliation.  The  buds  should  be  taken  as  they  are  just 
opening  if  winter  buds,  but  the  vegetative  buds  also  furnish 
good  demonstrations.  If  opening  winter  buds  are  not  avail- 
able, large  quiescent  buds  will  do,  but  they  are  not  so  easily 
manipulated. 


156  APPENDIX   II 


CHAPTER  X 

PROTECTION 
General  Reading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  2,  pp.  430-451. 

Hardinge,  With  the  Wild  Flowers,  pp.  217-258  (Poisonous 
Species) . 

Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  55  (§§  112,  113),  117  (§  227  a)  ;  Ele- 
ments, pp.  41  (§§  101,  102),  64  (§  167). 

Croupin,  The  Thorns  of  Plants  (Popular  Science  Monthly, 
Volume  46,  pp.  498-501  (with  figures),  1895). 

I.  The   Orange,   Lemon,  or   any  of  the    Cratcegus  sp., 
i.e.  Scarlet  Thorn,  Hawthorn,  or  Cockspur  Thorn,  are  ex- 
cellent.    Leafless  branches  may  be  dried  and  soaked  out 
again  as  recommended  under  Chapter  VIII. 

II.  In  the  Eastern  Barberry  (Herberts   vulgaris},  after 
the  leaves  have  appeared  in  the  spring,  a  complete  series  of 
gradations  from   leaves  to  spines   may  be  traced  in  many 
instances.     Read  Gray,  Elements  or  Text-book,  referred  to 
above. 

III.  The  long,  slender,  upright  shoots  from  the  base  of 
Robinia  Pseudacacia  show  these  spines  beautifully.      The 
Acacia  armata  or  Spiny  Acacia  is  fairly  commonly  grown 
in  California  and  to  some  extent  in  the  greenhouses  East. 
The  stems  of  the  Euphorbia  splendens,  common  in  green- 
houses all  over  the  country,  is  also  armed  with  spines  occupy- 
ing the  places  of  stipules.     The  spines  in  Xanthium  spinosum, 
a  frequent  weed  in  California,  are  also  stipular. 


APPENDIX   II  157 


IV.  The  prickles  of  Roses  and  of  Brambles  are  in  many 
cases  especially  adapted  more  for  climbing  than  for  protec- 
tion. Read  Kerne r  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  2,  pp.  671 
(bottom  line)-673. 

VIII.  Read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  2,  pp. 
441-443. 

XL  Read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  i,  pp.  307- 
346,  347-355  ;  and  Volume  I,  Part  2,  pp.  548-552. 


CHAPTER  XI 

STORAGE 
General  Reading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  2,  p.  749  (bottom),  750, 

751  (bottom),  752,  624. 
Gray,  Text-book,  pp.    31,  32,    57-64,    115,  116,  and   14-26; 

Elements,  pp.  35,  36,  43-48,  62,  63,  and  17-26. 
Allen,  The  Story  of  the  Plants,  pp.  68-72. 

THE  materials  for  illustrating  storage  are  generally  acces- 
sible. Small  specimens  of  Cacti,  Agaves,  Aloes,  etc.,  may  be 
obtained  from  the  florist  in  pots.  Corms,  bulbs,  etc.,  can  be 
obtained  from  the  florist  at  certain  seasons,  when  it  is  well 
to  preserve  a  supply  in  formalin.  Radishes,  Carrots,  Beets, 
Potatoes,  etc.,  can  be  obtained  in  the  market  at  almost  any 
time. 

Besides  the  rough  morphological  study  outlined,  the 
student  may  with  advantage  study  thin  sections  of  the  thick- 
ened parts  and  test  for  the  particular  reserve  materials  as 
recommended  in  the  case  of  seeds  (see  p.  144). 

II.    Species  of  Live-for-ever  are  also  good. 


158  APPENDIX   II 


III.  The  root-stocks  of  the  Solomon's  Seal  are  also  excel- 
lent for  this  purpose. 

IV.  The  Jerusalem  Artichoke  has  excellent  tubers.     The 
teacher  should  provide,  if  possible,  a  young  plant  of  the 
Potato   or  Artichoke,  with  as   much   of  the   underground 
portion  as  possible,  showing   at   least   the   slender  under- 
ground branches  with  the  tubers  at  the  ends. 

V.  The  Corms  of  the  Crocus  and  of  the  Indian  Turnip  or 
Jack-in-the-Pulpit  are  excellent.     Gladiolus  is  usually  readily 
obtainable  from  the  florist  at  the  proper  season  for  planting. 
Various  Brodiaeas  are  common  throughout  California. 

VII.  Scaly  bulbs  are  not  always  readily  obtainable.  One 
of  the  best  is  that  of  Lilium  auratum,  obtainable  in  the 
spring  from  the  florist,  but  they  are  somewhat  expensive. 
The  Bermuda  or  Easter  Lily  is  cheaper  and  may  be  ob- 
tained usually  during  the  winter.  The  native  Lilies  are 
good.  Californians  may  generally  obtain  excellent  Lilium 
bulbs  in  Chinatown,  at  any  rate  in  the  larger  cities.  The 
Chinese  use  them  for  food. 

IX.  The  Ornithogalum,  or  Star-of-Bethlehem,  has  also 
very  good  tunicated  bulbs. 

CHAPTER  XII 
CLIMBING  PLANTS 
General  Reading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  2,  pp.  669-710. 
Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  34,  35,  51-53,  54,  55>  117-118. 
Allen,  The  Story  of  the  Plants,  pp.  178  (bottom)-iSo. 
Darwin,  Climbing  Plants. 


APPENDIX   II  159 


THE  hints  contained  in  the  introductory  paragraph  should 
be  emphasized  by  the  teacher  and  illustrations  suggested  or 
called  forth  from  the  class.  The  struggle  for  light  and  air 
thus  illustrated  will  not  be  easily  impressed  upon  their 
minds  in  any  other  way.  It  is  important  that  these  points 
should  be  made  plain  in  order  that  the  student  may  under- 
stand why  it  is  that  plants  take  to  climbing. 

I.  Manettia  is  a  common  plant  with  the  florist.     Small 
ones,  trained  about  slender  stakes,  may  often  be  obtained  in 
pots,  and  in  this  condition  are  readily  available  for  observa- 
tion in  the  laboratory. 

II.  Any  species  of  Ipomxa  will  do.     Several  species  are 
grown  in  the  greenhouses.     7.  purpurea,  the  common  Morn- 
ing Glory,  may  be  readily  raised  from  seed  in  pots  and 
allowed  to  twine  about  slender  stakes. 

IV.  Especially  Beans,  Cypress  Vines,  Dutchman's  Pipes, 
Yams,  etc. 

V.  The  Grapevine  also  has  excellent  tendrils,  but  their 
homology  with  branches  is  not  easily  made  out.    Ampelop- 
sis  sp.,  i.e.  the  Virginia  Creeper  and  the  Japanese  Creeper, 
have  tendrils  which  form  suckers  at  the  ends  and  attach 
themselves  to  flat  surfaces  in  this  way. 

VI.  Peas  can  be  raised  very  easily  in  boxes  in  the  labo- 
ratory.    Five  to  six  weeks  will  generally  be  sufficient  for 
their  growth. 

VIII.  Solatium  jasminoides  may  often  be  obtained  from 
florists,  during  the  winter,  in  small  pots  and  will  climb  about 
slender  supports. 

Compare  Gray,  Text-book,  p.  117,  Fig.  235. 

IX.  Pressed  specimens  often  show  the  habit  very  well. 


APPENDIX   II 


CHAPTER   XIII 
EPIPHYTES,  PARASITES,  AND  SAPROPHYTES 

General  Reading 

EPIPHYTES  : 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  i,  pp.  115  (bottom) -117; 

Part  2,  pp.  753,  754. 
PARASITES  : 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  i,  pp.  171-215. 
SAPROPHYTES  : 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  i,  pp.  99-1 19. 

As  the  laboratory  work  proceeds,  the  relationships  exist- 
ing between  epiphytes,  parasites,  and  saprophytes  should  be 
brought  out  and  the  gradations  between  the  various  kinds. 

I.  These  Aerial  Orchids,  as  they  are  called,  are  generally 
obtainable,  and  may  perhaps  be  borrowed  or  hired  of  the 
florist. 

II.  The   Rock    Lichens  are  also  good  examples.     The 
"  symbiosis  "  character  of  the  Lichen  may  be  explained  by 
the  teacher  if  desirable. 

Read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  i,  pp.  243-248. 

III.  Mistletoes  are  fairly  readily  obtainable  in  California 
and  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  United  States  from  the 
Rocky  Mountains  eastward,  from  oaks,  etc.     Pieces  of  the 
branches  upon  which  they  grow  should  be  taken  with  them. 
In  other  parts  of  the  country,  supplies  must  be  drawn  from 
correspondents  or  from  the  florists  who  have  supplies  about 
Christmas  time,  but  such  specimens  usually  lack  any  portion 
of  the  host  plant. 


APPENDIX   II 


IV.  Compare  Kerne r  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  i, 
p.  209,  Fig.  48. 

VI.  Species  of  Dodder  (Cuscuta}  are  common  all  over 
the  country.  Material  is  best  when  fresh  or  preserved  in 
formalin,  but  may  also  be  dried  and  soaked  out  again. 

VIII.  The  Bread-Mould  is  a  very  good  example   of  a 
saprophyte  and  also  of  a  group  of  plants  of  which  we  have, 
as   yet,  had  no   example   in  our  work ;  viz.  of  flowerlcss- 
or   spore-plants.      The    Coral    Roots    (species    of    Coral- 
lorhiza)  are  fairly  widely  distributed  and  may  be  studied. 
The  Indian  Pipe   (Monotropa)   is  perhaps   more  properly 
a  parasite  upon  a  mould.     The  insectivorous  plants  treated 
under  the  next  chapter  are  also  saprophytes,  but  as  they 
obtain  their  organic  materials  in  an  entirely  different  way, 
they  are  not  included  here.     The  teacher,  however,  should 
call  the  attention  of  the  students  to  this  fact. 

IX.  Read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part    i,  pp. 
213-215. 

CHAPTER    XIV 

INSECTIVOROUS  PLANTS 

General  Reading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  i,  pp.  119-158. 
Allen,  The  Story  of  the  Plants,  pp.  63-68. 
Gaye,  The  Great  World's  Farm,  pp.  149-151. 
Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  110-115  ;  Elements,  pp.  64-66. 
Darwin,  Insectivorous  Plants. 

I.  In  the  eastern  United  States,  both  to  the  north  and 
to  the  south,  some  species  of  Pitcher  Plant  (Sarracenia) 


APPENDIX  II 


may  be  obtained.  Other  districts  must  needs  be  supplied 
by  friends  or  by  some  botanical  supply  company.  (The 
Cambridge  Botanical  Supply  Co.,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  adver- 
tises that  it  will  obtain  botanical  materials  for  teachers.) 
Plants  may  be  kept  growing  in  the  laboratory  if  the  pots  are 
kept  immersed  in  several  inches  of  water.  Dried  leaves 
may  be  kept  from  season  to  season,  being  soaked  up  in 
water  when  needed.  Species  of  Nepenthes  are  often  grown 
in  conservatories. 

II.  The  Darlingtonia  is  difficult  to  obtain  except  occa- 
sionally from  florists  who  deal  in  native  plants.1  It  is  easily 
grown  in  the  same  way  as  Sarracenias  are. 

IV.  The  Venus  Flytrap  is  very  restricted  in  its  range, 
but  is  fairly  readily  grown  in  sand  in  a  pot  immersed  in 
a  few  inches  of  water.  It  may  be  obtained  through  dealers 
in  native  plants.1 

VII.  The  teachers  in  the  eastern  United  States  can  obtain 
Drosera  species.  Others  may  sometimes  obtain  them  from 
florists.  They  should  be  grown  in  peat  and  Sphagnum,  but 
do  not  flourish  as  well  as  the  plants  previously  mentioned. 

The  Bladderworts  (Utricitlaria  sp.)  may  also  be  used  if 
accessible  to  the  teacher,  as  they  are  in  much  of  the  country 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

If  laboratory  material  is  unobtainable,  the  teacher  will  lect- 
ure upon  this  chapter  and  show  specimens  or  illustrations. 

i  Such  as  Edward  Gillett,  Southwick,  Mass.,  or  F.  H.  Hosford  &  Co., 
Charlotte,  Vt. 


APPENDIX  II  163 


CHAPTER  XV 
REPRODUCTION 

IN  beginning  to  consider  the  matter  of  reproduction,  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  to  this  end  that  the  plant 
works.  It  strives  first  to  build  up  a  strong  healthy  body  or 
vegetative  portion,  and  to  accumulate  proper  materials,  both 
in  kind  and  in  quality,  in  order  that  the  provisions  made  for 
reproducing  its  kind  and  perpetuating  the  species  may  be 
adequate. 

It  is  for  the  purpose  of  providing  for  this  that  some 
plants  find  it  advantageous  to  protect  themselves  against 
unfavorable  conditions  and  animals  which  would  otherwise 
prey  upon  them,  to  store  up  nourishment  to  be  expended 
for  this  purpose,  to  adopt  the  habits  of  epiphytes,  parasites, 
saprophytes,  or  insectivorous  plants,  to  grow  high,  to  remain 
low,  or  to  climb  up  over  their  neighbors.  In  fact,  every 
variation  in  plant  structure  and  habit  is  probably  explainable 
upon  the  idea  that  the  plant  has  to  struggle  to  maintain 
itself  in  a  condition  to  reproduce  its  kind.  That  some 
plants  adopt  one  set  of  methods,  and  others,  another,  leads 
to  the  infinite  variation  in  plant  life  which  we  find. 


I64  APPENDIX   II 


CHAPTER  XVI 

VEGETATIVE  REPRODUCTION 
General  Reading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  25-45  and  452-463. 
Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  43  (§§  73,  74),  45  (§  77),  53  (§§  ">$- 
108),  56-60  (§§  115-117),  63  (§§  123,  124). 

I.  Lilium  tigrinum,  or  Tiger  Lily,  is  in  common  cultiva- 
tion in  the  East,  and  may  be  obtained  through  florists  there 
or  elsewhere.  Cicuta  bulbifera,  of  the  East,  has  also  very 
excellent  axillary  bulblets.  Some  species  of  Calochortus, 
or  Mariposa  Lily,  have  subterranean  axillary  bulblets. 

III.  In  the  eastern  United  States  many  Wild  Onions 
produce  bulblets  instead  of  flowers. 

IV.  Cultivated    species    of  Dwscorea,  obtainable   from 
florists. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

SEED  REPRODUCTION 

THE  general  reading  is  so  extensive  and  the  number  of 
subjects  so  great  that  the  references  will  be  given  under  the 
heads  of  the  several  succeeding  chapters.  It  has  seemed 
simplest  and  best  in  this  little  guide  to  distinguish  seed  and 
spore  reproduction,  since  we  shall  have  no  means  of  examin- 
ing the  finer  details  of  the  embryology  of  the  forms  either 


APPENDIX   II  165 


higher  or  lower.  They  are  related  to  one  another  some- 
thing as  oviparous  and  viviparous  reproductive  methods  in 
the  animals,  i.e.  they  are  not  different  in  kind,  but  in  spore 
reproduction  the  reproductive  body  (the  spore)  is  separated 
from  the  parent  while  still  in  a  very  simple  and  very  primi- 
tive condition ;  while  in  seed  reproduction,  it  is  retained 
longer  in  connection  with  the  parent  until  it  has  developed 
within  it  a  rudimentary  plantlet,  with  provision  for  rapid 
development  of  root,  stem,  and  leaf.  A  number  of  plants 
possess  a  kind  of  reproduction  intermediate  between  the 
two. 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

A  TYPICAL  OR  PATTERN  FLOWER 

General  Reading 

Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  176-179  (§§  323-325);  Elements,  pp. 
81,  82  (§§  239,  240).  _    . 

I.  Crassula  species  are  to  be  obtained  from  the  green- 
house, and  it  will  be  best  to  preserve  a  quantity  in  formalin 
solution.  If  Crassula  is  not  available,  some  species  of  Sediim 
may  be  obtained.  Sedum  has  two  circles  of  stamens,  and 
the  alternation  of  the  circles  seems  to  be  disturbed.  With  a 
little  foresight  the  teacher  can  usually  obtain  the  flowers  of 
some  species  either  of  Sedum  or  Crassula,  either  fresh  or 
preserved  in  fluid. 

VIII.  The  teacher  will  do  well  to  study  the  floral  dia- 
grams or  ground  plans  given  in  Gray  and  also  in  Kerner  and 
Oliver  under  various  paragraphs. 

Compare  Gray,  Text-book,  p.  176,  Fig.  327;  Elements, 
p.  82,  Figs.  225  and  227. 


166  APPENDIX   II 


CHAPTER  XIX 

FERTILIZATION 
General  Reading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  401-420. 
Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  215-218  and  283-285. 
Allen,  The  Story  of  the  Plants,  pp.  73-86. 
Gaye,  The  Great  World's  Farm,  pp.  190-207. 

THE  distinction  between  pollination  and  the  descent  of  the 
pollen  tube  upon  the  one  hand  and  fertilization  upon  the 
other  is  one  demanding  much  emphasis,  and  the  teacher 
must  not  only  impress  it  upon  the  pupil,  but  must  constantly 
guard  against  the  misuse  of  the  terms  both  upon  his  own 
part  and  upon  that  of  the  pupil  as  well. 

Fertilization  refers  to  the  whole  process  upon  which  the 
development  of  the  embryo  depends.  This  technical  use 
must  be  guarded  from  confusion  with  the  fertilization  of  the 
soil  either  natural  or  artificial.  The  process  of  pollination  is 
the  process  which  may  be  studied  with  the  facilities  open 
to  the  ordinary  student,  and  must  be  studied  in  the  field  to 
be  comprehended  in  its  variety  of  interests.  Some  typical 
examples  may  be  brought  into  the  laboratory,  but  excur- 
sions with  the  view  of  examining  the  plants  in  their  natural 
habitat,  and  encouragement  to  the  pupils  to  make  excur- 
sions for  themselves,  to  watch  and  attempt  to  make  out  the 
details  of  the  fertilization  in  as  many  different  kinds  of  flow- 
ers as  possible,  is  very  necessary.  Such  work  as  this  is  far 
better  than  any  laboratory  work  which  can  be  conceived  of. 


APPENDIX   II  167 


CHAPTER  XX 

IMPERFECT,  INCOMPLETE,  AND  UNSYMMETRICAL  FLOWERS 

IMPERFECT  FLOWERS: 

Read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  291-299. 
Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  193  (§  353)  and  218  (§  405). 
Allen,  The  Story  of  the  Plants,  pp.  105  (bottom  line)-lO9. 
Gaye,  The  Great  World's  Farm,  pp.  208-212. 

I.  6.  In  this  case  it  is  intended  to  call  attention  to  the 
more  complete  crossing  in  dioecious  plants  than  must  neces- 
sarily take  place  in  monoecious  plants.     Read,  also,  Kerner 
and  Oliver,  Vol.  II,  Part  i,  pp.  300  (section  at  bottom  of  the 
page),  301;  and   Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  215    (note  under 
Kerner's  " Flowers  and  their  Unbidden  Guests"),  216,  for 
the  terms  Autogamy,  Allogamy,  Geitonogamy,  and  Xenogamy. 

II.  The  perianth,  i.e.  the   floral   envelopes   (calyx  and 
corolla),  serves  two  separate  kinds  of  functions.     First,  it 
protects  the  maturing  essential  organs  until  they  are  in  a 
condition   to  perform  their  functions.      Second,  it  serves, 
in   insect-pollinated   flowers,  to  attract  insects  both  by  its 
color,  and  by  the  nectar  which  it  secretes.      It  is  by  no 
means  easy  to  determine  in  most  cases  why  one  or  both 
circles  of  the  perianth  are  absent. 

Read  Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  187-195. 

III.  IV.   Irregtilarity  is  generally  explainable  after  more 
or  less  careful  study  upon  the  basis  of  adaptation  to  insect- 
pollination.     The  papilionaceous  flower  in  its  various  forms, 
and  the  flowers  of  the  Larkspur,  Monkshood,  Pansy,  etc., 
are  excellent  examples  and  worthy  of  detailed  study. 


APPENDIX   II 


Read  Kerne r  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  228, 
260,  261,  267,  268;  Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  184-189, 
225-229 ;  Allen,  The  Story  of  the  Plants,  pp.  90-98 ; 
Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  pp.  27-30. 

V.  Orchids  of  various  kinds  may  generally  be  obtained  from 
the  greenhouses.     The  pollen  masses  may  be  demonstrated 
and  the  method  of  their  withdrawal.     Certain  native  species, 
especially   of  Habenaria,    may   often   be   obtained.      The 
material  used  should  be  alive  and  a  pencil  tip  or  a  bristle 
be  employed  to  represent  the  proboscis  of  an  insect. 

Read  Kerne r  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  254-257, 
269,  270;  Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  230-234;  Weed,  Ten  New 
England  Blossoms,  pp.  72-89  ;  also  Darwin,  On  the  Fer- 
tilization of  Orchids  by  Insects. 

Species  of  Milkweed  (Asclepias)  have  pollinia,  and  living 
material  may  be  introduced  into  the  laboratory  whenever 
possible  and  the  process  of  pollination  be  demonstrated. 

Read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  257-260  ; 
Gray,  Text-book,  p.  233  (bottom). 

VI.  The  lack  of  symmetry  is  usually  connected  more  or 
less  directly  with  irregularity  and  is  brought  about  by  the 
suppression  of  parts  of  different  circles. 

Read  Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  187-190. 

CHAPTER  XXI 

COALESCENCE  AND  ADNATION 

COALESCENCE  and  adnation  are  directly  concerned  in  the 
same  way  as  irregularity,  in  devices  to  ensure  insect  pollina- 
tion. They  modify  the  structure  of  the  flower  so  as  to 
exclude  insects  of  no  use  for  this  purpose,  and  to  cause  the 


APPENDIX   II  169 


proper  insects  to  enter  the  flower  in  such  a  fashion  as  to 
benefit  it  in  the  most  satisfactory  way.  Hints  of  this  may 
be  obtained  by  reading  from  this  point  of  view  Kerner  and 
Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  221-243  and  243-276. 

I.    Read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  p.  249. 

III.  Read  Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  259-268;  Kerner  and 
Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  72-84. 

V.  Read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  p.  247, 
Fig.  266. 

CHAPTER   XXII 
WIND-  AND  INSECT- POLLINATION. 

I.  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  129-151. 
Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  217,  218. 

Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  p.  7  (top). 
Allen,  The  Story  of  the  Plants,  pp.  124-135. 
Gaye,  The  Great  World's  Farm,  pp.  208-214. 
Hardinge,  With  the  Wild  Flowers,  pp.  47-55. 
Weed,  Ten  New  England  Blossoms,  pp.  1-17. 

The  Indian  Corn  is  certainly  a  most  excellent  example  of 
a  wind-pollinated  plant,  and  may  usually  be  obtained  or,  at 
least,  explained,  as  its  general  arrangement  is  known  to  all. 
The  feathery  stigmas  of  other  Grasses  are  also  extremely 
instructive,  taken  into  connection  with  the  versatile  anthers. 

II.  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  152-167. 
Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  218,  219. 

i.  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  182-198. 
Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  pp.  13,  14. 
Allen,  The  Story  of  the  Plants,  pp.  86-96,  103,  104. 
Allen,  The  Colors  of  the  Flowers. 


170  APPENDIX   II 


2.  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  198-209. 
Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  p.  43. 

3.  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  167-182. 
Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  pp.  32-42. 

4.  (a)  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  280  (bot- 

tom line),  281,  Fig.  280. 

4.    (ti)  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  263  (bot- 
tom paragraph),  264. 

4.    (c)  Gray,  Text-book,  p.  229  (§  419,  Figs.  455-457)- 

The  Special  Devices,  however,  are  not  limited  to  these 
examples  which  are  introduced  here  especially  to  show  auto- 
matic movements  of  the  essential  organs.  The  teacher  after 
carefully  studying  the  various  devices  described  in  the  first 
part  of  Kerner  and  Oliver's  Natural  History  of  Plants, 
and  Gray's  Text-book,  will  doubtless  be  able  to  provide  a 
number  of  interesting  forms  and  to  demonstrate  the  working 
of  the  particular  mechanism  or  structure.  Attention  may  be 
called,  however,  to  two  cases,  viz.  :  — 

Salvia.  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  262, 
263.  Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  pp.  20-22  ;  and 

Composite,  Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  223,  224.  Lubbock, 
Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  pp.  25,  26 ; 

as  being  easily  obtainable  and  demonstrable.  Composite  are 
readily  obtainable  everywhere,  the  common  Sunflower  and 
Cosmos  are  good,  and  species  of  Salvia  are  commonly  culti- 
vated. 

5.  Dichogamy.  Read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i, 

pp.  306-317  ;  Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  219-225  ;  Allen, 
The  Story  of  the  Plants,  pp.  101,  102  ;  Lubbock, 
Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  pp.  16-19. 

6.  Scrophularia  nodosa  and  S.  Calif  or  nica  are  equally  suit- 

able and  allow  the  use  of  this  plant  in  almost  any 


APPENDIX   II  171 


portion  of  the  United  States.  Plantains  are  common. 
The  species  with  the  longer  spikes  are  preferable. 
Specimens  in  formalin  solution  may  be  used  when 
fresh  material  is  not  available. 

7.  Some  Pelargoniums,  also,  are  excellent,  but  others  are  not. 

For  Geranium,  compare  Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits, 
and  Leaves,  p.  8,  Figs.  5  and  6.  The  various  Mal- 
lows are  excellent,  for  the  stigmas  of  most  species 
remain  within  the  stamen  tube  until  the  anthers  have 
shed  their  pollen,  then  emerge  and  expand.  The 
larger  flowered  Willow-herbs  (Epilobium  species)  are 
excellent  also,  as  may  be  seen  from  Gray,  Text-book, 
p.  222,  and  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i, 
p.  309,  Fig.  293.  Preserved  material  will  answer  very 
well,  but  the  teacher  will  find  that  a  very  large  num- 
ber of  different  species  of  flowers  are  protandrous  and 
a  considerable  number  protogynous. 

8.  Heterostyly.     Read  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part 

i,  pp.  302,  303,  396-399,  and  405  ;  Gray,  Text- 
book, pp.  234-239  (under  Hcterogonous  Dimor- 
phism and  Trimorphisin)  ;  Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits, 
and  Leaves,  pp.  30-33 ;  Weed,  Ten  New  England 
Blossoms,  pp.  18—32  (Mayflower,  Epigcea  repens). 

The  Bluets  are  well  adapted  for  the  demonstration  of 
heterostyly,  but  are  available  for  the  most  only  east  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  Other  species  of  Houstonia  extend  some- 
what west  of  that.  The  blossoms  of  the  Partridge  Berry 
(Mitchella  repens)  and  of  the  Mayflower  {Epigcea  repens} 
are  also  excellent,  but  the  range  of  these  plants  is  limited 
and  Eastern. 

The  Primroses  of  the  gardens  and  greenhouses  do  very 
well,  but  very  frequently  one  can  find  only  one  "  length  of 


I72  APPENDIX   II 


style."  Teachers  will  do  well  to  obtain  supplies  of  preserved 
material  either  by  their  own  efforts  or  those  of  their  friends, 
or  purchase  them  from  the  "  Botanical  Supply  Co."  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass. 

9.  The  Purple  Loosestrife  is  occasionally  planted  and  seeds 

may  be  obtained  through  the  larger  florists.  Other 
species  of  Lythrum  may  do  fairly  well,  such  as  the 
western  and  Pacific  coast  species.  Nesiza  occurs  in 
the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

10.  Read  the  reference  in  Kerner  and  Oliver  given  above. 

Some  Eschscholtzias  have  four  long  styles,  and  some 
two  long  ones,  but  the  majority  have  two  long  ones 
and  two  short.  The  Eschscholtzia  is  easily  obtained 
in  California  and  is  frequently  cultivated  elsewhere 
in  the  United  States. 

Protection  of  Pollen.  —  The  teacher  may  read  and  call 
the  attention  of  the  students  to  the  various  devices  (such 
as  opening  and  closing,  possession  of  glutinous  coverings 
etc.)  for  protecting  the  pollen  from  unfavorable  weather 
and  from  undesirable  insects.  Many  cases  illustrative  of 
these  points  will  suggest  themselves  from  the  following 
references :  — 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  104-129, 
and  230-243 ;  Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  pp. 
37-42. 


APPENDIX   II  173 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

SELF-  POLLINATION 
General  Reading 
Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  331-401. 

THESE  pages  give  a  review  of  the  general  subject  of  self- 
pollination  or  Autogamy  which  results  in  close- fertilization, 
a  phenomenon  of  much  more  frequency  than  has  been  gen- 
erally supposed. 

Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  240-242. 

I.  Weed,  Ten  New  England  Blossoms,  pp.  90-98  ;  Kerner 
and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  p.  393. 

Species  of  Polygala  with  cleistogamous  flowers  occur  over 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  United  States.  Pressed  specimens 
may  be  used  as  well  as  fresh  ones.  P.  polygama  is  one  of 
the  best  species,  since  the  cleistogamous  flowers  are  numer- 
ous and  may  be  obtained  in  all  stages. 

In  regard  to  the  cleistogamous  flowers  of  Violets,  read 
Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  pp.  53-57. 


APPENDIX   II 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

ANTHOTAXY 
General  Reading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  2,  pp.  736-749. 

Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  141-162. 

Allen,  The  Story  of  the  Plants,  pp.  135-149. 

THE  general  work  upon  the  flower  clusters  is  morphologi- 
cal and  comparative.  It  shows  how  practically  the  same 
result  is  obtained  by  the  different  plants  in  very  different 
ways.  Besides  those  flower  clusters  mentioned  in  the  guide 
the  following  may  be  studied  :  — 

HELIOTROPE.    Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  153  (§  280-155. 

DOGWOOD.  Species  of  Cornus,  such  as  C.  Canadensis, 
C.florida,  and  C.  Nuttalliana.  Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  152, 
153  ;  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  183,  184, 
231,  Fig.  260. 

CHAPTER  XXV 
METAMORPHOSIS 
General  Reading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  I,  Part  2,  pp.  594-597 
Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  5-8,  167-174. 

AT  the  close  of  this  chapter,  it  will  be  well  for  the  teacher, 
assuming  that  three  primary  organs,  root,  stem,  and  leaf,  are 
modified  in  one  way  and  another  to  do  all  the  work  of  the 
plant,  to  review  all  the  previous  chapters  from  this  point  of 


APPENDIX   II  175 


view,  showing  how  one  plant  modifies  one  of  these  three 
organs  to  do  a  certain  kind  of  work,  and  another  plant 
another  one  of  the  three  to  do  the  same  kind  of  work,  and 
so  on. 

CHAPTER  XXVI 

FRUITS 
General  Reading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  426  (bottom)-436. 
Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  285-287. 

THE  teacher  will  need  to  emphasize  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  popular  and  the  scientific  uses  of  the  term  fruit. 
Fruit  is  used  as  a  household  term  in  a  loose  way  to  designate 
those  fruits  which  are  ordinarily  eaten  raw,  while  such  fruits 
as  Tomatoes,  Egg-plants,  etc.,  which  are  cooked,  are  classed 
with  Cabbages,  Potatoes,  etc.,  under  the  general  head  of 
"  vegetables." 

CHAPTER  XXVII 
FLESHY   FRUITS 
General  Reading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  I,  pp.  427,  428 ;  Part  2, 

pp.  862-866. 

Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  297-303. 
Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  pp.  73-75. 
Gaye,  The  Great  World's  Farm,  pp.  270-276. 
Allen,  The  Story  of  the  Plants,  pp.  154-158. 

FLESHY  fruits  may  usually  be  obtained  in  the  market. 
Some  kinds  are  sold  dried  and  may  be  soaked  out  before 


176  APPENDIX   II 


being  given  to  the  class.     Formalin  solution  also  preserves 
them  well. 

I.  Preserved  Cherries  are  useful  when  no  fresh  ones  are 
obtainable,  and  Prunes  may  be  soaked  over  night. 

I.    5.  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  2,  p.  865  (top). 

IV.  Cranberries  remain  in  the  market  for  a  considerable 
time,  but  it  is  well  to  preserve  a  quantity  in  formalin 
solution. 

XIV.  The  Rose-hip  and  the  Fig  may  be  studied  if  time 
and  material  allow,  to  show  fruits  in  which  the  receptacle 
enclosing  the  real  fruits  becomes  fleshy,  while  the  Strawberry 
is  a  good  example  of  dry  fruits  (achenes)  borne  upon  the 
outside  of  a  very  fleshy  and  succulent  receptacle. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

DRY  DEHISCENT  FRUITS 

General  Reading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  429-432;  Part  2, 

pp.  833-840. 
L^ibbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  pp.  53-65. 

I-III.  The  references  given  above  apply  especially  to 
fruits  which  are  noticeably  explosive.  Perhaps  all  dehiscent 
fruits  are  more  or  less  explosive,  but  the  evidence  is  not  so 
plain  in  the  majority  of  cases.  In  the  paragraphs  that  fol- 
low, more  attention  is  paid  to  the  method  of  dehiscence. 

III-VIII.  Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  288-293 ;  Lubbock, 
Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  p.  65,  Fig.  46. 


APPENDIX   II  177 


Materials  for  explosive  fruits  may  be  dried  and  the  explo- 
sive character  may  be  inferred  after  explosion.  Occasion- 
ally the  phenomenon  may  be  observed  in  the  laboratory,  or 
the  student  may  keep  the  fruits  under  observation  at  home 
until  it  occurs.  For  methods  of  dehiscence,  the  plants  rec- 
ommended are  generally  accessible  at  the  right  season  (i.e. 
after  flowering)  and  the  dried,  opened  capsules  may  be 
stored  in  pasteboard  boxes  until  needed.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  obtain  a  suitable  Poppy.  The  smaller  red  or  white 
garden  species  are  usually  excellent. 

CHAPTER  XXIX 
DRY  INDEHISCENT  FRUITS 

General  Reading 

Gray,  Text-book,  p.  294  (§  562). 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  I,  p.  429. 

IN  addition  to  the  reading  recommended  in  the  following 
chapters,  it  will  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  read  what  is  said 
in  Kerner  and  Oliver's  "  Natural  History  of  Plants  "  upon 
Creeping  Mechanisms  (Volume  II,  Part  2,  pp.  843,  844). 

CHAPTER  XXX 

SEED  DISPERSAL  BY  ANIMALS 

General  Reading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  2,  pp.  866-876. 
Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  pp.  75-80. 

V.  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  442-450. 

VI.  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  2,  pp.  866,  867. 


I78  APPENDIX    II 


THE  carrying  of  seed,  even  from  one  continent  to  another, 
by  water-birds  in  the  mud  adhering  to  the  feet  or  feathers 
should  be  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  class  by  the  teacher, 
and  the  pupils  induced  to  be  upon  the  lookout  for  any  cases 
which  they  can  find,  of  dispersal  by  animals. 

CHAPTER  XXXI 

SEED   DISPERSAL   BY   THE   WIND 
General  Heading 

Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  2,  pp.  848-862. 
Lubbock,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves,  pp.  79-82. 
Hardinge,  With  the  Wild  Flowers,  pp.  202-204. 
Allen,  The  Story  of  the  Plants,  pp.  149-154. 
Gaye,  The  Great  World's  Farm,  pp.  253-256. 
Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  294,  295. 

MATERIALS  of  the  fruits  necessary  for  the  work  under  this 
chapter  may  be  procured  at  various  times  during  the  season 
and  preserved  dry  in  paper  bags  or  boxes.  The  different 
powers  and  styles  of  sailing  through  the  air  should  be  tested 
in  the  laboratory. 

CHAPTER  XXXII 

SEED   DISPERSAL   BY  WATER 

General  Reading 
Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  2,  pp.  845-848. 

WATER  dispersal  is  neither  so  common  nor  so  frequently 
observed  as  that  by  wind  or  animals.  Yet  the  students  will 
find  in  the  autumn  that  the  quieter  portions  of  brooks,  and 


APPENDIX    II  179 


especially  of  ponds,  contain  larger  or  smaller  quantities  of 
small  floating  fruits,  mostly  of  the  dry  and  indehiscent  class. 

I.    Cocoanuts  with  the  husks  on,  may  often  be  obtained 
through  the  wholesale  dealers  in  fruits. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 

SPORE   REPRODUCTION 

General  Reading 
Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  8-25  and  49-70. 

THE  subject  of  spore  reproduction,  even  in  the  narrower 
and  limited  sense  in  which  the  writer  has  used  it,  is  so  com- 
plex that  it  should  really  be  considered  in  a  course  of  study 
devoted  especially  to  it,  and  requiring  the  use  of  the  com- 
pound microscope  and  more  complicated  methods  of  ma- 
nipulation than  the  writer  considers  best  for  beginners  in 
botanical  observation.  At  this  point,  however,  the  students 
may,  with  profit,  if  time  and  the  facilities  allow,  take  up  a 
short  course  devoted  entirely  to  the  cryptogams. 

Spores  are  of  two  kinds,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  refer- 
ences above.  They  may  be  the  result  of  a  sexual  process, 
i.e.  of  fertilization  ;  or  they  may  arise  without  any  sexual 
process  whatever.  The  spores  recommended  in  the  guide 
are  all  of  the  latter  kind.  They  are  introduced  here  simply 
to  illustrate  this  kind  of  reproductive  body,  and  the  examples 
recommended  are  chosen  first  because  they  are  fairly 
readily  obtainable,  and  second,  because  they  represent 
several  of  the  more  conspicuous  and  important  groups  of 
spore-plants.  If  compound  microscopes  are  available,  the 
spores  and  sporangia,  at  least,  may  be  examined  more  care- 


APPENDIX    II 


fully,  and  a  few  other  forms  such  as  Spirogym,  Fatiilieria, 
Peronospora  or  Cystopus,  Pucdnia,  Uredo,  and  sEcidiutn 
added. 

FARTHER  STUDY 

When  the  student  shall  have  finished  a  careful  study  of 
the  morphology  of  the  more  conspicuous  plants,  and  has 
seen  some  of  the  more  important  modifications  of  the  dif- 
ferent organs  to  perform  different  services  to  the  plant,  it 
will  be  well  for  him  to  study  as  many  species  as  are  readily 
accessible  in  suitable  condition,  with  especial  attention  to  the 
consideration  of  the  life-history.  It  will  be  well  to  use  some 
suitable  manual  of  the  botany  of  the  region  from  which  the 
name  and  the  relationships  of  the  species  may  be  obtained. 
But  the  teacher  should  prevent  this  searching  out  of  the 
name  and  the  practice  in  the  use  of  the  analytical  key  from 
absorbing  the  principal  portion  of  the  attention.  The  prac- 
tice in  using  the  key  is  excellent  logical  discipline  of  a  cer- 
tain kind,  but  the  training  of  the  powers  of  observing 
correctly,  and  of  making  the  proper  inferences,  should  not 
be  subordinated  to  it.  The  name  should  not  be  the  end  for 
which  the  work  is  done.  The  name  serves  two  purposes : 
first,  it  furnishes  a  convenient  designation  to  be  used  when 
studying,  talking,  or  writing  of  the  plant ;  and  second,  it 
enables  the  student  to  find  out  what  others  have  written 
or  think  about  the  subject. 

The  principal  attention  of  the  student  should  be  directed 
towards  the  morphology  of  the  plant  in  as  many  of  its  dif- 
ferent stages  of  development  as  possible.  This  study  of  the 
life-histories  of  the  different  species  forms  as  profitable  work 
as  can  be  recommended  for  the  student.  Teachers  may 
obtain  suggestions  in  this  direction  from  the  chapter  upon 


APPENDIX   II  181 


Some  Plant  Biographies  of  Grant  Allen's  little  book,  "  The 
Story  of  the  Plants." 

It  is  well,  also,  at  this  time,  to  introduce  the  student  to 
some  idea  of  species,  genera,  orders,  etc.,  from  the  point 
of  view  of  descent  or  phylogeny. 

Read  Gray,  Text-book,  pp.  315-331  (especially  §§  657- 
662)  ;  Kerner  and  Oliver,  Volume  II,  Part  i,  pp.  486,  487, 
and  495,  496  ;  Part  2,  pp.  497-600. 


INDEX   AND    SUMMARY 


Abutilon,  dichogamy,  98. 

Acacia,  phyllodium,  34,  150. 

Acacia  armata,  protection,  156. 

Achene,  definition,  120. 

Acuminate,  29. 

Acute,  29. 

Adnation,  89,  93,  94,  168,  169 ;  Even- 
ing Primrose,  94;  Fuchsia,  94; 
GEnothera,  94. 

v^Ecidium,  reproduction,  180. 

Agave,  storage,  59,  157. 

Agoseris,  seed  dispersal,  124. 

Ailanthus,  samara,  123. 

Alder,  buds,  46;  defoliation,  38; 
phyllotaxy,  153 ;  pollination,  95. 

Allogamy,  167. 

Aloe,  storage,  157. 

Althsea,  capsule,  117 ;  double  flowers, 
107. 

Ampelopsis,  climbing,  159. 

Anagallis,  capsule,  118. 

Anemone,  flower,  91. 

Annual,  definition,  58. 

Anther,  cells  of,  83 ;  Crassula,  82. 

Anihotaxy,  Anthurium,  103;  Bego- 
nia, 104 ;  bractlets,  102 ;  Calla, 
103;  Caraway  Seed,  102;  Carrot, 
102;  Corymb,  102;  Currant,  101 ; 
Cyme,  104,  definition,  101 ;  deter- 
minate, 104 ;  Fennel,  102 ;  Haw- 
thorn, 102 ;  indeterminate,  104 ; 
involucel,  102;  involucre,  102; 
Lantana,  103 ;  Lily-of-the- Valley, 
101;  Onion,  102;  Parsnip,  102; 
Pelargonium,  102;  Plantain,  103; 
Poison  Hemlock,  102;  raceme, 


101 ;     reading    upon,    174 ;     Red 

Clover,  103 ;  Red-hot-Poker  Plant, 

101 ;    spadix,    103 ;    spathe,    103 ; 

spike,  103  ;  umbel,  102 ;  umbellet, 

102;    Verbena,   103;    Zygadenus, 

101. 
Anthurium,    spadix,    103;     spathe, 

103. 
Apple,    phyllotaxy,    41;     leaf,    149; 

pome,  113, 114. 
Apricot,  drupe,  in. 
Arborescent,  23. 
Arboreus,  23. 
Arbor  Vitse,  leaves,  35. 
Aristate,  29. 
Artichoke,  storage,  158. 
|  Asclepias,  pollinia,  168. 
Ash,  samara,  123. 
Asparagus  medeoloides,  cladophylla, 

151 ;  leaves,  151. 
Aster,  leaves,  150. 
Astragalus,  seed  dispersal,  124. 
Auricle,  Bean  seed,  3. 
Auriculate,  29. 

Autogamy,  167 ;  reading  upon,  173. 
!  Axil,  definition,  25,  46. 
;  Axillary,  buds,  46. 
Azalea,  capsule,   117;    leaves,   152; 

praefoliation,  53. 

Balsam,  pod,  116. 

Banana,  fruit,  113. 

Banner,  Bean,  91;  Locust,  91 ;  Pea, 
91 ;  Wistaria,  91. 

Barberry,  protection,  55,  156 ;  sta- 
mens, 97 ;  leaf,  37. 


INDEX   AND    SUMMARY 


Bark,  Butternut,  23 ;  corky,  23 ;  outer, 
19 ;  Walnut,  23. 

Basswood,  phyllotaxy,  153  ;  stem, 
148. 

Bean,  auricle,  3 ;  buds,  49 ;  caulicle, 
3  ;  chalaza,  2,  143  ;  climbing,  159  ; 
cotyledons,  3  ;  embryo,  3,  4  ; 
flower,  91;  hilum,  i,  143;  kernel, 
2;  micropyle,  2,  143;  pod,  i,  116, 
143,  144  ;  plumule,  3  ;  primary 
root,  12 ;  rhaphe,  2,  143 ;  root 
hairs,  18  ;  secondary  roots,  17  ; 
seed,  i ;  seed-coats,  2 ;  seed-leaves, 
3;  seedling,  n;  strophiole,  i,  143. 

Bearberry,  drupes,  112. 

Bedstraw,  phyllotaxy,  39 ;  seed  dis- 
persal, 122. 

Beech,  buds,  46;  bud  scales,  48; 
phyllotaxy,  153;  protection  of  fruit, 

122. 

Beet,  storage,  62,  157. 

Beggar-ticks,  seed  dispersal,  121. 

Begonia,  cyme,  104 ;  flower,  90 ;  phyl- 
lotaxy, 40  ;  stigma,  83 ;  vegetative 
reproduction,  79. 

Bellwort,  perfoliate  leaf,  33,  149. 

Berberis  vulgaris,  protection,  156. 

Bermuda  Lily,  storage,  158. 

Berry,  Banana,  113;  cells  of,  113; 
Cranberry,  112;  Currant,  113; 
Gooseberry,  113;  Grape,  113;  hes- 
peridium,  113;  pepo,  113;  peri- 
carp, 113;  pome,  113;  seeds,  113; 
spines,  122;  Tomato,  113. 

Bidens,  seed  dispersal,  121. 

Biennial,  definition,  58. 

Birch,  buds,  46;  pollination,  95. 

Bladder  Nut,  seed  dispersal,  124. 

Blade,  leaf,  26 ;  Darlingtonia,  74 ; 
Pitcher  Plant,  73;  Sarracenia  pur- 
purea,  73  ;  Sundew,  75 ;  Venus  Fly- 

traP.  75- 

Blackberry,  protection,  56. 
Bluet,  heterostyly,  99,  171. 
Boneset,  leaves,  150. 
Books,  list  of,  139,  140. 
Bract,  definition,  102. 


Bractlet,  Caraway  Seed,  102 ;  Carrot, 

102;  definition,  102;    Fennel,  102; 

Parsnip,    102;     Poison    Hemlock, 

102. 
Bramble,  climbing,  157;  protection, 

56.  IS7- 
Bread  Mould,  hyphae,  71 ;  review  of, 

128  ;  saprophyte,  71,  161 ;   sporan- 
gia, 71 ;  spore,  71. 
Brodiasa,  storage,  158. 
Bryophyllum,  adventitious  buds,  49; 

vegetative  reproduction,  79. 
Buckeye,  buds,  47,  154 ;  bud  scales, 

48 ;  defoliation,  38. 
Budding,  80. 
Buds,  accessory,  47 ;  adventitious,  49, 

50 ;    Alder,   46 ;    axillary,   46,  47 ; 

Bean,  49 ;    Beech,  46 ;    Birch,  46 ; 

Buckeye,  47,  48,   154;    Butternut, 

46,  47,  48;   classification,  50;  col- 
lateral, 47 ;    contents,  50 ;    cover- 
ings, 50 ;  Currant,  47,  154 ;  defini- 
tion, 46;  flower,  49;   Fuchsia,  49; 
grass,  79 ;    in  axil  of  leaf,  25  ;   lat- 
eral, 46;  leaf,  48;  Lilac,  48;  Maple, 

47,  48,  154;   material,   154;    Mint, 
79;     mixed,    48;    naked,  48;    on 
underground  stems,  79 ;   parasitic 
in  grafting,  71 ;  Pea,  49 ;  questions 
upon,  50;    Red  Maple,  154;  rela- 
tion to  leaf,  46;  scaly,  47;    Silver 
Maple,   154 ;    Sunflower,  49 ;    su- 
perposed, 47 ;    Sweet   Potato,  49 ;  ' 
terminal,  46 ;   Walnut,  46,  47,  48  ; 
winter,  49 ;  Witch  Hazel,  48 ;  vege- 
tative, 49. 

Bud  scales,  Beech,  48 ;  Buckeye,  48 ; 
Butternut,  48;  Currant,  48;  Fig, 
48;  Hazel,  48;  homologous  with 
leaves,  48 ;  Lilac,  48 ;  Pittospo- 
rum,  48  ;  Tulip  Tree,  48 ;  Walnut, 
48  ;  Witch  Hazel,  48. 

Bulb,  Gladiolus,  60;  Hyacinth,  62; 
Lily,  61 ;  Onion,  62 ;  scaly,  61 ; 
solid,  60;  tunicated,  62. 

Bupleurum  rotundifolium,  leaves,  150. 

Butter-and-Eggs,  winged  seeds,  123. 


INDEX   AND   SUMMARY 


185 


Buttercup,  green  flowers,  107 ;  nec- 
tar, 96 ;  protection,  56. 

Butterfly  flower,  Pea,  92. 

Butternut,  buds,  46 ;  bud  scales,  48 ; 
cambium,  23 ;  corky  bark,  23 ;  cor- 
tex, 23 ;  hat  d  bast,  23 ;  internodes, 
22;  medullary  rays,  23 ;  nodes,  22; 
pollination,  95  ;  pith,  23 ;  rings  of 
wood,  23;  soft  bast,  23;  stem,  22; 
xylem,  23. 

Buttonball,  stem,  148. 

Cactus,  storage,  58,  157. 

Calico  Bush,  stamens,  97. 

Calla  Lily,  breathing  pores,  30;  epi- 
dermis, 29 ;  green  pulp,  30 ;  leaf, 
27;  praefoliation,  53;  spadix,  103; 
spathe,  103;  stomata,  30;  woody 
framework,  30. 

Calochortus,  vegetative  reproduction, 
164. 

Calycanthus,  flower,  107. 

Calyptra,  Funaria,  127;  Moss,  127; 
Polytrichum,  127. 

Calyx,  Crassula,  82 ;  Evening  Prim- 
rose, 94 ;  Fuchsia,  94  ;  in  incom- 
plete flowers,  91;  CEnothera,  94; 
Pea,  93  ;  synsepalous,  93. 

Cambium,  Butternut,  23  ;  Sunflower, 
20 ;  Walnut,  23. 

Capsule,  definition  of,  117;  Funaria, 
127;  Moss,  127;  Polytrichum,  127. 

Caraway  Seed,  umbel,  102. 

Carpel,  definition,  94. 

Carrion  Flower,  odor,  96. 

Carrot,  storage,  62,  157 ;  umbel,  102. 

Caruncle,  Castor  Bean,  4. 

Castor  Bean,  caruncle,  4 ;  caulicle,  5 ; 
chalaza,  5  :  cotyledons,  5,  13 ;  em- 
bryo, 5;  endosperm,  5;  hilum,  5; 
kernel,  5 ;  rhaphe,  4 ;  seed,  4,  143, 
144;  seed-coats,  5;  seedling,  13; 
tegmen,  5,  13 ;  testa,  5,  13. 

Catalpa,  winged  seeds,  123. 

Caulicle,  Bean,  3, 4 ;  Castor  Bean,  5  ; 
Corn,  7,  14;  Onion,  8,  15;  I'inf, 
8,15- 


Century  Plant,  storage,  59. 

Chalaza,  143;  Bean,  2,  4;  Castor 
Bean,  5. 

Chelone,  capsule,  117. 

Cherry,  drupe,  in,  112,  176;  leaf, 
149 ;  praefoliation,  52. 

Chestnut,  protection  of  fruit,  122. 

Chinquapin,  protection  of  fruit, 
122. 

Choripetalous,  corolla,  93. 

Chrysanthemum,  leaf,  33. 

Clcuta  bulbifera,  bulblets,  164. 

Circumscissile  dehiscence,  118 ;  Ana- 
gallis,  118;  Pimpernel,  118;  Portu- 
laca,  118;  Purslane,  118. 

Cirrhiferous,  pinnate  leaves,  151. 

Cladophyllum  (plural  cladophylla), 
Myrsiphyllum,  36 ;  Smilax,  36. 

Cleavers,  phyllotaxy,  39;  seed  dis- 
persal, 122. 

Cleistogamous,  flowers,  100 ;  Fringed 
Polygala,  100 ;  Polygala  paucifolia, 
100 ;  P.  polygama,  100. 

Cleft,  29. 

Clematis,  clasping  petioles,  66 ;  climb- 
ing, 66. 

Climbing,  Ampelopsis,  159;  Bean, 
159 ;  Bramble,  157 ;  by  aerial  root- 
lets, 67 ;  by  clasping  petioles,  66 ; 
by  tendrils,  65,  66;  Clematis,  66; 
Cypress  Vine,  159;  direction  of 
twining,  64,  65  ;  Dodder,  70  ; 
Dutchman's  Pipe,  159  ;  Grape 
Vine,  159;  Hop,  64;  Ipomcea, 
159;  Ipomcea  purpurea,  159;  Ivy, 
66 ;  Japanese  Creeper,  159 ;  Jas- 
mine-flowered Nightshade,  66; 
Manettia,  64,  159 ;  Morning  Glory, 
65;  Pea,  66,  159;  plants,  64; 
reading  upon,  158 ;  Rose,  157 ; 
Solanum  Jasminoides,  66,  159 ; 
Squash,  65;  twining,  64,  65;  Vir- 
ginia Creeper,  159;  Virgin's  Bower, 
66;  Yam,  159. 

Clotbur,  seed  dispersal,  lai. 

Clover,  flower,  96;  head,  103. 

Coalescence,  89,  93,   168,  169;  Co- 


1 86 


INDEX  AND   SUMMARY 


rolla,  93  ;   Ipomoea,  93  ;    Morning 

5;     Corn,  7,   14;    Onion,   8,    14; 

Glory,  93. 

Pine,  8,  15. 

Cockspur,  Thorn,  protection,  156. 

Cranberry,  berry,  112,  176;  pericarp, 

Cocoanut,  embryo,  125  ;  endosperm, 

113  ;  seeds,  113. 

125;  "eyes,"  125;  fruit,  125;  husk, 

Crassula,  alternation   in   the  flower, 

125  ;    seed-coats,  125  ;    seed   dis- 

85;   anther,   82;   anther  cell,   83; 

persal,  125,  179. 

calyx,   82;    corolla,   82;    filament, 

Color  of  flowers,  95,  96  ;  change  of, 

82  ;    flower,  82  ;    number  of  parts 

96  ;  variegated,  96. 

in    the    flower,    85  ;     ovary,    82  ; 

Columbine,  flower,  96. 

ovary  cell,  83  ;  ovule,  83  ;   pattern 

Compositas,  pollination,  170. 

flower,   85,    165;  petal,  82;    pistil, 

Compound  leaves,  Barberry,  37  ;  de- 

82;  placenta,  83;   pollen,  82;  re- 

foliation,   38  ;     Five-Finger,    28  ; 

ceptacle,  84;    sepal,    82;    stamen, 

Orange,  37;    palmately,  28;    pin- 

82;  stigma,  82;  style,  82;    typical 

nately,  28;  Rose,  28;  Strawberry, 

flower,  85. 

28  ;  unifoliolate,  37. 

Crataegus,  protection,  156. 

Cones,  American   Larch,  43;   Nor- 

Crenate, 29. 

way  Spruce,  42  ;  phyllotaxy,  42. 

Crocus,  storage,  158. 

Corallorhiza,  saprophyte,  161. 

Cryptogams.    See  Flowerless  Plants. 

Coral,  Root,  saprophyte,  161. 

Cucumber,  pepo,  114. 

Cordate,  29. 

Cuneate,  29. 

Cork,  Butternut,  23  ;  Walnut,  23. 

Currant,  berry,  113;   buds,  47,  154; 

Corm,  Gladiolus,  60. 

bud  scales,  48;    praefoliation,  52; 

Corn,    adventitious    roots,    14,    18  ; 

protection,  55  ;  raceme,  101. 

caulicle,  7,  14;  cotyledons,  7,  14; 

Cuscuta,  parasite,  161. 

embryo,  7;  endosperm,  7,  14;  in- 

Cuspidate,.  29. 

ternodes,  21;    nodes,  21;    phyllo- 

Cyme, Begonia,  104. 

taxy,  153;    pith,  21,  22;  plumule, 

Cypress,  Lawson's,  leaves,  35  ;  lon- 

7,  14  ;    pollination,  95,   169  ;    pri- 

gevity of  leaf,  37  ;   winged  seeds, 

mary  root,  14  ;  rind,  22  ;  root  hairs, 

123. 

18;   seed,  6,   143;   seed-coats,   6; 

Cypress  Vine,  climbing,  159. 

seedling,  n,  13  ;  stem,  21,  22  ;  vas- 

Cypripedium, leaf,  149. 

cular  bundles,  21,  22. 

Cystopus,  reproduction,  180. 

Cornus,  anthotaxy,  174. 

Cornus  Canadensis,  anthotaxy,  174. 

Dandelion,  seed  dispersal,  124. 

Cornus  florida,  anthotaxy,  174. 

Darlington  ia,   blade,   74;    insectivo- 

Cornus Nuttallii,  anthotaxy,  174. 

rous,  74,  162  ;  leaf,  74  ;  petiole,  74  ; 

Corolla,  choripetalous,  93  ;  Crassula, 

"  windows,"  74. 

82;    Morning  Glory,  93;    papilio- 

Datura, protection  of  fruit,  122. 

naceous,  92  ;  sympetalous,  93. 

Day  Lily,  capsule,  117;    phyllotaxy, 

Cortex,  Butternut,  23  ;  Sunflower,  19; 

153;  winged  seeds,  123. 

Walnut,  23. 

Decodon,  heterostyly,  99. 

Corymb,  Hawthorn,  102. 

Decompound,   leaf,    28  ;    palmately, 

Cosmos,  pollination,  170;  stem,  147, 

28  ;   Parsley,  28. 

148. 

Decussate  leaves,  43. 

Cotton,  seed  dispersal,  124. 

Defoliation,    38,    152  ;     Alder,    38  ; 

Cotyledon,  Bean,  3,  4  ;  Castor  Bean, 

Buckeye,  38;    compound    leaves, 

INDEX  AND   SUMMARY 


187 


38  ;    Elm.   38  ;    Grape   Vine,  38  ; 

123;  Water  Lily,  125;  Yam,  123; 

Hazel,  38;    Horse   Chestnut,  38; 

Xanthium,  121. 

Japanese  Creeper,  38  ;  Locust,  38  ; 

Divided  leaf,  29. 

Rose,  38;  simple  leaves,  38;  Wil- 

Dock, praefoliation,  53. 

low,  38. 

Dodder,    leaves,  70  ;    pale  parasite, 

Dehiscence,  advantages  of,  118  ;  by 

71,  161  ;  suckers,  70  ;  twining  stem, 

pores,   118  ;    circumscissile,    118  ; 

70. 

loculicidal,  117  ;  methods  of,  117, 

Dog-tooth  Violet,  storage,  62. 

118;    septicidal,    117;    septifragal, 

Dogwood,  anthotaxy,  174. 

117.     See  also  circumscissile,  lo- 

Drawing, 134. 

culicidal,  septicidal,  and  septifra- 

Drosera,   blade,    162  ;    glands,    162  ; 

gal. 

leaf,  162  ;  petiole,  162. 

Dehiscent,  fruits,  no,  116. 

Drupe,    Apricot,    in  ;     Bearberry, 

Dentate,  29. 

112;  Cherry,  in;  definition,  in  ; 

Denticulate,  29. 

Huckleberry,  1  12;  Manzanita,  112; 

Deodar,  phyllotaxy,  45. 

Peach,  in;  Plum,  in;  putamen, 

Determinate,  anthotaxy,  103. 

in  ;  sarcocarp,  112. 

Dichogamy,  Abutilon,  98;  definition, 

Dry  fruits,  no,  116. 

98;   Geranium,  98;  Hibiscus,  98; 

Dutchman's  Pipe,  climbing,  159. 

Lavatera,  98  ;  Mallow,  98  ;  Malva, 

98;    Plantain,   98;   reading  upon, 

Easter  Lily,  storage,  158. 

170;  Scrophularia,  98. 

Elliptical  leaf.  29. 

Dicotyledonous,  embryo,  21,  27. 

Elm,  defoliation,  38  ;    longevity  of 

Dimorphism,  heterogonous,  171.  See 

leaf,  37;  phyllotaxy,  153;  samara, 

Heterostyly. 

123. 

Dioecious,  definition,  90. 

Emarginate,  29. 

Dioscorea,  vegetative  reproduction, 

Embryo,  Bean,  3,  4;  Castor  Bean,  5  ; 

164;  winged  seeds,  123. 

Cocoanut,  125  ;  Corn,  7  ;  dicotyle- 

Dispersal, Agoseris,  124  ;  Ailanthus, 

donous,    21  ;     essentials    of,    81  ; 

123;  Ash,  123;  Bedstraw.122;  Beg- 

monocotyledonous,  22  ;    Morning 

gar-ticks,  121  ;   Bidens,  121  ;  Blad- 

Glory, 6  ;  Onion,  8  ;  Pine,  8  ;  poly- 

der  Nut,  124;  Butter-and-Eggs,  123  ; 

cotyledonous,  21. 

by  animals,  121  ;  by  tumble  weeds, 

Endogenous,  stem,  22,  27. 

124;  by  water,  125  ;  by  wind,  123  ; 

Endosperm,    Castor    Bean,    5,    13; 

Catalpa,  123  ;  Clotbur,  121  ;  Cocoa- 

Cocoanut,     125  ;    Corn,   7,    14  ; 

nut,    125,    179  ;    Cotton,   124  ;    Cy- 

Morning Glory,  6  ;    Onion,  8,  14  ; 

press,  123;   Dandelion,  124;  Day 

Pine,  8,  15. 

Lily,  123;    Dioscorea,  123;    Elm, 

Entire  leaf,  29. 

123  ;  Goose  Cleavers,  122  ;  Ground 

Epidermis,  Calla,  29  ;  leaf,  27  ;  stem, 

Cherry,    124  ;     Hop,    124  ;    Hop 

20;  Sunflower,  20. 

Hornbeam,    124  ;    Isomeris,    124  ; 

Epigaa.  repens,  heterostyly,  171. 

Linaria,  123;  Maple,  123;  methods 

Epilobium,  dichogamy,  171. 

of,  120;   Milkweed,  124;  of  fleshy 

Epiphyte,  aerial  roots,  69;   Lichen, 

fruits,  ill  ;  of  seeds,  109  ;   Physalis, 

69,  160  ;  Orchid,  68,  69,  160  ;  read- 

124;    Pine,    123;     Sedges,    125; 

ing  upon,  160. 

Staphylea,  124;   Taraxacum,  124; 

Equipment,  laboratory,  141. 

Troximon,  124  ;  Trumpet  Creeper, 

Eraser,  133. 

188 


INDEX  AND   SUMMARY 


Eschscholtzia,   heterostyly,   99,   172  ; 

169;  color,  95,  96;  Columbine,  96; 

protection,  56. 

complete,    84;     Composite,    170; 

Eucalyptus,    horizontal    leaves,    35  ; 

Cosmos,  170;    Crassula,  82,  165; 

leaves,  151  ;  torsion  of  internodes, 

Currant,  101  ;   Decodon,  99  ;  defi- 

44 ;  vertical  leaves,  35. 

nition,   85;    diagrams,   165;    dioe- 

Eupatorium perfoliatum,  leaves,  150. 

cious,    90  ;     essential    parts,    85  ; 

Euphorbia  splendens,  protection,  156. 

Eschscholtzia,    99;    Fennel,    102; 

Evening  Primrose,  adnation  in,  94  ; 

Figwort,      107  ;     Geranium,     98  ; 

flower,  94. 

ground-plan,  85,  165  ;  green,  107  ; 

Exogenous,  stem,  21,  27. 

Habenaria,  168  ;    Hawthorn,  102; 

Explosive    fruits,    116;    Bean,    116; 

Hepatica,  91  ;  Hibiscus,  98  ;  Hibis- 

Balsam, 116;  Impatiens,  116;  Ox- 

cus  Syriaca,  107  ;  Houstonia  cceru- 

alis,   116;    Pea,  116;   Violet,   116; 

&a,  99  ;  imperfect,  90  ;  incomplete, 

Wistaria,  116. 

91;    intergradation    of   parts,  97; 

irregular,    89,    167  ;    Kalmia,    97  ; 

Fascicle  of  leaves,  45. 

Lantana,  96,    103  ;    Larkspur,  92, 

Fennel,  umbel,  102. 

96;      Lavatera,     98;      Lily-of-the- 

Fern,   indusium,    126;    leaves,    126; 

Valley,  101  ;   Locust,  91  ;   Lythrum 

pragfoliation,  53  ;  sori,  126  ;  sporan- 

Salicaria, 99  ;  Mallow,  98  ;  Malva, 

gia,  127;  spores,  127;  stem,  127. 

98;  Mimulus,97;  Monkey  Flower, 

Fertilization,  agencies,  89  ;  close,  88  ; 

97;    monoecious,  90;    nectar,  96; 

cross,  88  ;    dichogamy,  98  ;   essen- 

Nesaea,  99  ;    numerical   plan,  85  ; 

tials  of,  87  ;  of  flower,  87  ;  proter- 

Nymphasa,  107  ;  odor,  96  ;  Orchid, 

andry,  98  ;  proterogyny,  98  ;  read- 

96, 108  ;  Pansy,  92,  96  ;  papiliona- 

ing upon,  166  ;  steps  in,  88. 

ceous,  92;  Parsnip,  102;  parts  of, 

Fig,  bud  scales,  48  ;  fruit,  176. 

82  ;  pattern,  82  ;    Pea,  91  ;   perfect, 

Figwort,     dichogamy,     98  ;      green 

84  ;  perianth,  167  ;  Plantain,  98,  103  ; 

flowers,  107. 

Poison  Hemlock,   102;    Primrose, 

Filament,  Barberry,  97  ;  coalescence 

99;    Prince's  Feather,  91;    Purple 

of,  93  ;  Crassula,  82. 

Loosestrife,  99  ;  reading  upon  im- 

Five-Finger,   leaf,   28  ;    leaflets,   28  ; 

perfect,  167;  reading  upon  irregu- 

petiole, 28  ;  stipules,  28. 

lar,  168;    reading  upon  typical  or 

Fleshy  fruits,  no,  in. 

pattern,    165  ;    Red    Clover,    103  ; 

Flower,  Abutilon,  98  ;   adnation,  89, 

Red-hot-Poker  Plant,  101  ;  regular, 

168  ;   alternation  of  parts,  84  ;  Al- 

84; Rose,  107;  Salvia,  170;  Scro- 

thaea,  107  ;  Anemone,  91  ;  Anthu- 

phularia,  98;  Sedum,  165;  sessile, 

rium,   103  ;    arrangement  of,  101  ; 

103  ;    Smilax  herbacea,  96  ;    spur, 

arrangement  of  parts,  106  ;  Ascle- 

92  ;  Sunflower,  170  ;  Swamp  Loose- 

pias, 168;  axillary,  105;   Barberry, 

strife,    99;    Sweet-scented    Shrub, 

97  ;    Bean,  91  ;    Begonia,  90,  104  ; 

107;    symmetrical,    84;    terminal, 

Bluet,  99  ;  buds,  48  ;  Buttercup,  96, 

104;    Torenia,  97;  Trillium,    107; 

107;     butterfly,    92;     Calla,    103; 

Trillium  erectum,  96  ;  typical,  82  ; 

Calico     Bush,    97;     Calycanthus, 

unsymmetrical,  89,  92  ;  variegated, 

107  ;   Caraway  Seed,  102  ;  Carrion 

96;     Verbena,    103;     Violet,    92; 

Flower,  96  ;    Carrot,  102  ;   change 

White  Water  Lily,  107  ;  Wistaria, 

of  color,  96  ;    cleistogamous,  100  ; 

91  ;  Zygadenus,  101. 

Clover,  96  ;  coalescence  in,  89,  168, 

Flowerless  Plants,  69  ;  yEcidium,  180  ; 

INDEX   AND   SUMMARY 


189 


Bread  Mould,  71;  Cystopus,  180; 
Fern,  126,  127 ;  Lichen,  69 ;  Moss, 
127;  Mushroom,  128;  Perono- 
spora,  180;  Puccinia,  180;  Spiro- 
gyra,  180 ;  Uredo,  180 ;  Vaucheria, 
180. 

Forceps,  133. 

Forsythia,  torsion  of  internodes,  44. 

Fringed  Polygala,  cleistogamous 
flowers,  100. 

Fruit,  achene,  120 ;  Agoseris,  124 ; 
Ailanthus,  123 ;  Althaea,  117 ;  Ana- 
gallis,  118;  Apple,  113,  114;  Apri- 
cot, in,  112 ;  Ash,  123 ;  Astragalus, 
124;  Azalea,  117;  Balsam,  116; 
Banana,  113;  Bean,  116;  Bear- 
berry;  112;  Bedstraw,  122 ;  Beech- 
nut, 122;  Beggar-ticks,  121;  Berry, 
in,  112;  Bidens,  121;  Bladder 
Nut,  124 ;  bladdery,  124 ;  capsule, 
117;  Chelone,  117;  Cherry,  in, 
112;  Chestnut,  122;  Chinquapin, 
122;  circumscissile,  118;  Clotbur, 
121 ;  Cocoanut,  125 ;  Composite 
Family,  124;  Cranberry,  112;  Cu- 
cumber, 114;  Currant,  113;  Dan- 
delion, 124;  Datura,  122;  Day  Lily, 
117;  definition,  109;  dehiscence, 
117;  dehiscent,  no,  116;  dehis- 
cent by  pores,  118;  dispersal,  120; 
dry,  no,  116,  120 ;  drupe,  in  ;  Elm, 
123;  explosive,  116;  fleshy,  in ; 
Funkia,  117  ;  general  reading  upon, 
175;  Gerardia,  117;  Gooseberry, 
113;  Goose  Cleavers,  122 ;  Gourd, 
114;  Grape,  113;  Ground  Cherry, 
124;  hesperidium,  113:  Hibiscus, 
117  ;  Hop,  124  ;  Hop  Hornbeam, 
124;  Huckleberry,  112;  Impatiens, 
116 ;  indehiscent,  no,  120:  Iris,  117 ; 
Isomeris,  124;  key,  123;  Lemon, 
114;  loculicidally  dehiscent,  117; 
Manzanita,  112;  Maple,  123;  ma- 
terials of  explosive,  176;  Melon, 
114;  Morning  Glory,  117:  nut, 
120;  Orange,  114;  Oxalis,  116; 
Pea,  116;  Peach,  in,  112;  pepo, 


|  113;  pericarp,  in  ;  Physalis,  124 ; 
Pimpernel,  118;  Plum,  in,  112; 
pome,  113;  Poppy,  118;  Portulaca, 
118;  protection  of,  122 ;  Pumpkin, 
114;  Purslane,  118 ;  putamen,  112; 
reading  upon  dry  dehiscent,  176; 
reading  upon  dry  indehiscent,  177 ; 
reading  upon  fleshy,  175 ;  Rhodo- 
dendron, 1 17 ;  samara,  123;  sarco- 
carp,  112  ;  sedges,  125  ;  septicidally 
dehiscent,  117;  septifragally  de- 
hiscent, 117;  Staphylea,  124;  St. 
John's  Wort,  117;  storage  by 
animals,-  122;  Taraxacum,  124; 
Thistle,  124;  Thorn  Apple,  122; 
Tomato,  113;  Troximon,  124; 
Turtle  Head,  117;  Violet,  116; 
Water  Lily,  125;  Wistaria,  116; 
with  tufts  of  hairs,  124 ;  Xanthium, 
121. 

Fruticose,  22. 

Fuchsia,  adnation  in,  94;  flower,  94; 
phyllotaxy,  39;  vegetative  buds, 
49- 

Funaria,  calyptra,  127  ;  capsule,  127 ; 
operculum,  127;  peristome,  127"; 
spores,  128. 

Funiculus,  Bean,  i. 

Funkia,  capsule,  117;  winged  seeds, 
123. 

Galium,  phyllotaxy,  39,  152. 
|  Geitonogamy,  167. 
1  Genus,  xiii. 

Geranium,  dichogamy,  98,  171. 

Gerardia,  capsule,  117. 

Germination,  conditions  of,  15. 

Gills,  Mushroom,  128. 
!  Glabrous,  29. 

'.  Gladiolus,  corm,  60, 158 :  storage,  60. 
'  Glands,  Sundew,  75. 

Glaucous,  29. 

I  Gooseberry,  berry,  113 ;    protection, 
1      55- 
I  Goose  Cleavers,  seed  dispersal,  122. 

Gourd,  pepo,  114. 
|  Grape,  berry,  113. 


INDEX  AND   SUMMARY 


Grape  Vine,  defoliation,  38  ;  tendrils, 

159- 

Grafting,  80. 
Grass,  phyllotaxy,  153;    pollination, 

95,  l69- 
Ground  Cherry,  seed  dispersal,  124. 

Habenaria,  fertilization  of,  168. 
Hard  bast,  Sunflower,  20;    Walnut, 

23- 

Hastate,  29. 

Hawthorn,  protection,  156. 
Hazel,  bud  scale,  48  ;  defoliation,  38  ; 

phyllotaxy,  153. 
Head,   Lantana,    103;    Red   Clover, 

103 ;  Verbena,  103. 
Heliotrope,  anthotaxy,  174. 
Hemerocallis,  phyllotaxy,  153. 
Hepatica,  flower,  91. 
Herb,  19. 
Herbaceous,  19. 
Hesperidium,  Lemon,  114;  Orange, 

114;   pulp,  114;    rind,  114;  seeds, 

114;  septa,  114. 
Heterogonous,  dimorphism,  171 ;  tri- 

morphism,  171. 
Heterostyly,  Bluet,  99 ;  Decodon,  99 ; 

Eschscholtzia,  99 ;  Houstonia  cceiu- 

lea,  99 ;    Lythrum    Salicaria,  99 ; 

Nesaea,  99 ;  Primrose,  99  ;  Purple 

Loosestrife,  99. 
Heterostyly,     reading      upon,    171 ; 

Swamp  Loosestrife,  99. 
Hibiscus,  capsule,  117;    dichogamy, 

98. 

Hibiscus  Syriaca,  double  flowers,  107. 
Hickory,  pollination,  95. 
Hilum,  Bean,  I,  4;  Castor  Bean,  5 ; 

Onion,  7. 
Hirsute,  29. 
Hispid,  29. 

Holly,  leaves,  152;  phyllotaxy,  41. 
Honeysuckle,     connate      perfoliate 

leaves,  34. 
Hop,  climbing,  64;  seed  dispersal, 

124. 
Hop  Hornbeani,  seed  dispersal,  124. 


Horse  Chestnut,  defoliation,  38. 
Houstonia,  heterostyly,  99,  171. 
Huckleberry,  drupe,  112. 
Hyacinth,  pistil,  94;  storage,  61,  62; 
tunicated  bulb,  62. 

Imparipinnate,  leaves,  151. 

mpatiens,  pod,  116. 

mperfect  (flower),  definition,  90. 

ncomplete  (flower),  definition,  91. 

ndehiscent,  fruits,  no. 

ndeterminate,  anthotaxy,  104. 

ndian  Pipe,  saprophyte,  161. 

ndian  Turnip,  storage,  158. 

ndividual,  definition,  xiii. 
Indusium  (plural  indusia),  Fern,  126. 
Insectivorous    Plants,   73;    Darling- 


tonia,  74,  162 ;  Drose 
penthes,    162 ;    Pitche 
161 ;    reading  upon, 
cenia,   161 ;   Sarracen 
73 ;  Sundew,  75  ;  Utri 


a,  162 ;  Ne- 
Plant,  73, 
61 ;  Sarra- 
a  purpurea, 
ularia,  162 ; 


Venus  Fly-trap,  74,  75,  162. 

Insect-pollinated  flowers,  Barberry, 
97 ;  Buttercup,  96 ;  Calico-Bush, 97  ; 
Carrion  Flower,  96;  Clover,  96; 
color,  95 ;  Columbine,  96 ;  Kalmia, 
97  ;  Lantana,  96 ;  Larkspur,  96 ; 
Mimulus,  97 ;  Monkey  Flower, 
97;  nectar,  96;  odor,  96;  Orchids, 
96 ;  Pansy,  96 ;  Smilax  herbacea, 
96;  Torenia,  97;  Trillium  erec- 
tum,  96. 

Instruments,  132. 

Internodes,  12,  25;  Butternut,  22; 
Corn,  21 ;  Grass,  79;  Mint,  79; 
Sunflower,  19 ;  torsion  of,  44 ;  Wal- 
nut, 22. 

Involucre,  Caraway  Seed,  102 ;  Car- 
rot, 102;  definition,  102;  Fennel, 
102;  Parsnip,  102;  Poison  Hem- 
lock, 102. 

Ipomoea,     climbing,     159;     corolla, 

93- 

Ipomaaa  purpurea,  climbing,  159. 

Iris,  capsule,  117  ;  leaves,  35;  phyllo- 
taxy, 153  ;  reproduction,  79 ;  stor- 


INDEX   AND   SUMMARY 


191 


age,   59;   vegetative   reproduction, 

Darlingtonia,  74;  definition  of,  25, 

79- 

149;  defoliation,  38;   Deodar,  45; 

Irregularity,  of  flower,  91  ;    reading 

Elm,  37,  38;   English  Ivy,  27;  Eu- 

upon, 168. 

calyptus,  35,  44,  151  ;  Evpatorium 

Isomeris,  seed  dispersal,  124. 

perfoliatum,  150;    fasciculate,  45; 

Ivy,  aerial  rootlets,  67  ;  climbing,  67  ; 

Five-Finger,    28;     Forsythia,    44; 

cuttings,  79  ;  leaf,  27. 

Fuchsia,  39  ;  Fuller's  Teazle,  150  ; 

function  of,  28,  29;    Galium,  39; 

Jack-in-the-Pulpit,  storage,  158. 

Grape  Vine,  38  ;  Hazel,  38  ;  Holly, 

Japanese  Creeper,  climbing,  159  ;  de- 

41, 152;   Honeysuckle,  34;  Horse 

foliation,  38. 

Chestnut,  38  ;  imparipinnate,  151  ; 

Japanese  Quince,  leaves,  25  ;  midrib, 

Iris,   35  ;    Japanese    Creeper,   38  ; 

26;  prsefoliation,  53;  venation,  26. 

Japanese  Quince,  25  ;  Kalmia,  152  ; 

Jasmine-flowered  Nightshade,  clasp- 

Larch, 45  ;    Lathyrus  Aphaca,  35, 

ing  petioles,  66  ;  climbing,  66. 

152  ;    Laurel,    152  ;    Lawson's  Cy- 

Jerusalem Artichoke,  storage,  158. 

press,  35;    Lily-of-the-  Valley,   27; 

Live   Oak,  37,    152;    Locust,    38; 

Kalmia,  leaves,  152  ;  stamens,  97. 

longevity  of,  37;    Maple,    37,  38, 

Kernel,   Bean,    2;    Castor  Bean,  5; 

43,44;  midrib,  26;    Mistletoe,  69; 

Onion,  8. 

Mock    Orange,    26  ;    mosaic,  44  ; 

Key-fruit,  Ailanthus,  123;  Ash,  123; 

Myrsiphyllum,  36  ;    Myrsiphyllum 

Elm,  123;  Maple,  123. 

asparagoides,   151;    netted-  veined, 

21  ;  Norway  Spruce,  35,  37  ;  Oake- 

Labelling,  135. 

sia,  149;  Orange,  37;  Oxalis,  36; 

Laboratory,  141. 

palmately    compound,    28  ;     pal- 

Lanceolate,  29. 

mately  decompound,  28  ;    Panda- 

Lantana,  flower,  96  ;  head,  103. 

nus,  44;  parallel-veined,  22;  Pars- 

Larch,  phyllotaxy,  43,  45,  153. 

ley,28;  Pear,  41,  149;  Pelargonium, 

Larkspur,    flower,    92;    nectar,    96; 

149  ;    perforate,   33,   150  ;    petiole, 

spur,  92. 

26;  Pine,  35,  37,  45  ;  Pitcher  Plant, 

Lathyrus  Aphaca,  leaf,  35,  151;  stip- 

73; Pittosporum,  26,  41;  Pittospo- 

ules,  35  ;  tendrils,  35. 

rum    eugenioides,    149;     questions 

Laurel,  leaves,  152. 

upon,  31;    Quince,   149;    reading 

Lavatera,  dichogamy,  98. 

upon,  149,  150;  relation  to  bud,  46; 

Leaf,  25;  Acacia,  34,  150;  Alder,  38; 

relations  to  light,  36;   Rhododen- 

Apple, 41,  149;   arrangement,  39; 

dron,  152;    Rose,  28;    Sarracenia 

Arbor  Vitae,  35  ;    as   foliage,  30  ; 

purpurea,  73  ;    scar,  46  ;  Scoliopus 

Aspara/nis  medeoloides,  151  ;  Aster, 

Bigelovii,   149  ;    Screw    Pine,   44  ; 

150  ;  axil  of,  25  ;  Azalea,  152  ;  Bar- 

Sensitive   Plant,   36  ;    sessile,    33  ; 

berry,  37  ;  Bedstraw,  39  ;  Begonia, 

shapes    of,    29,    149;    simple,   26; 

40;    Bellwort,  33,  149;   blade,  26; 

sleep  of,  36  ;  Smilax,  36,  151  ;  Soli- 

Boneset,  150  ;  Buckeye,  38  ;  Bupleit- 

dago,    150;    stipules,    26;    Straw- 

rum rotundifolium  ,  150  ;  Calla  Lily, 

berry,  28  ;  structure  of,  27,  28,  149  ; 

27,  29;   Cherry,  149;  Chrysanthe- 

Sundew, 75  ;  unifoliolate,  37  ;  vena- 

mum, 33  ;  cinhiferous  pinnate,  151  ; 

tion,  26  ;•  Venus  Fly-trap,  74,  75; 

Cleavers,    39  ;     connate-pet  foliate, 

Veratrum  viride,  41  ;  vertical,  34, 

34  ;  Cypress,  37  ;  Cypnpedium,  149  ; 

35  ;  White  Hellebore,  41  ;  Willow, 

I92 


INDEX   AND   SUMMARY 


37.  38  ;  without  distinction  of  parts, 

37;    phyllotaxy,   43,   44;    prsefolia- 

35- 

tion,  52  ;  samara,  123. 

Leaflets,  Five-Finger,  28  ;  Rose,  28  ; 

Mariposa  Lily,  vegetative  reproduc- 

Strawberry, 28. 

tion,  164. 

Lemon,  hesperidium,    114  ;    protec- 

Material, preservation  of,  138. 

tion,  156. 

Mayflower,  heterostyly,  171. 

Lens,  133. 

Mayweed,  protection  of,  56. 

Lichen,  epiphyte,  69,  160;  rock,  160. 

Medullary  rays,  Butternut,  23  ;  Wal- 

Life, xi  ;  animal,  xi  ;  plant,  xi. 

nut,  23. 

Life-history,  xi  ;  reading  upon,  181. 

Melon,  pepo,  114. 

Lilac,   bud  scales,  48  ;  prsefoliation, 

Mericarp,  Galium,  122. 

S1- 

Metamorphis,  of  flower  parts,   106, 

Lilium  auratum,  storage,  158. 

108  ;   of  plant  parts,  108  ;   reading 

Lilium    tigrinum,  vegetative  repro- 

upon, 174. 

duction,  164. 

Micropyle,    143;    Bean,    2;    Castor 

Lily,  pistil,  94;  scaly  bulb,  61  ;  stigma, 

Bean,  4  ;  Onion,  7  ;  Pine,  8. 

83  ;  storage,  60. 

Microscope,  dissecting,  133. 

Lily-of-the-  Valley,  leaf,  27;   raceme, 

Milkweed,  seed  dispersal,  124. 

IOI. 

Mimulus,  stigma,  97. 

Linaria,  winged  seeds,  123. 

Mistletoe,  green  parasite,  69,  70,  160  ; 

Linden,  phyllotaxy,  153  ;  stem,  148. 

leaves,  69;    roots,  70;    stem,  69; 

Linear,  29. 

suckers,  70. 

Live-for-ever,  storage,  157. 

Mitchella  repens,  heterostyly,  171. 

Live  Oak,  leaf,  37,  152;   phyllotaxy, 

Mock  Orange,  leaf,  26  ;   midrib,  26  ; 

152. 

venation,  26. 

Lobed,  29. 

Monkey  Flower,  stigma,  97. 

Loculicidal,  dehiscence,  117;  in  Al- 

Monocotyledonous, embryo,  22,  27. 

thaea,  117;   in   Day  Lily,  117;    in 

Monoecious,  definition,  90. 

Funkia,  117;  in  Gerardia,  117;  in 

Monotropa,  saprophyte,  161. 

Hibiscus,  117;  in  Iris,  117. 

Morning  Glory,  capsule,  117;  climb- 

Loculus (plural  loculi),  capsule,  117. 

ing,  64  ;  embryo,  6  ;  endosperm,  6  ; 

Locust,  defoliation,  38  ;   flower,  91  ; 

seed,  5  ;  seed-coats,  6  ;  sympetalous 

protection,  56. 

corolla,  93. 

Longevity,  of  leaves,  37;    Cypress, 

Moss,  calyptra,   127  ;    capsule,   127  ; 

37;    Elms,  37;    Live   Oaks,   152; 

operculum,   127;   peristome,   127; 

Maples,  37  ;    Norway  Spruce,  37  ; 

plant,  127  ;  spores,  128. 

Pine,  37  ;  Willow,  37. 

Mucronate,  29. 

Lythrum,  heterostyly,  172. 

Mullein,  protection,  57. 

Lythrum  Salicaria,  heterostyly,  99. 

Mushroom,  gills,  128;   pileus,  128; 

spores,  128;  stipe,  128. 

Magnolia,  prasfoliatum,  52. 

Myrsiphyllum,  cladophyllum,  36,  151; 

Mallow,  dichogamy,  98,  171 

leaves,  36,  151. 

Malva,  dichogamy,  98. 

Manettia,  climbing,  64,  159. 

Nectar,  flower,  96. 

Manzanita,  drupe,  112. 

Needles,  dissecting,  133. 

Maple,  collateral  accessory  buds,  47  ; 

Nepenthes,  insectivorous,  162. 

defoliation,  38  ;   longevity  of  leaf, 

Nesasa,  heterostyly,  99. 

INDEX  AND   SUMMARY 


193 


Nettecl-veined,  leaves,  21,  27. 

Ovate-lanceolate,  29. 

Nettle,  pollination,  95  ;  protection,  57. 

Ovule,  Crassula,  83  ;  nucleus  in,  87. 

Node,  of  stem,  12,  25  ;  Butternut,  22  ; 

Oxalis,  leaf,  36;  pod,  116. 

Corn,   21  ;    Grass,  79;    Mint,   79; 

Sunflower,  19  ;  Walnut,  22. 

Palmately  lobed,  Ivy-leaf,  27. 

Norway   Spruce,  cones,  42  ;    leaves, 

Pandanus,  phyllotaxy,  44. 

35;  longevity  of  leaves,  37  ;  phyllo- 

Pansy,  flower,  92;  nectar,  96;  spur, 

taxy,  42. 

92. 

Note-book,  132. 

Papilionaceous  flower,  Pea,  92. 

Notes,  135. 

Parallel-veined  leaves,  22,  26,  27. 

Nut,  definition,  120. 

Parasites,  68  ;  Cuscuta,  161  ;  Dodder, 

Nymphsea,  flower,  107. 

70,  161;  green,  79;  Mistletoe,  69, 

160;  pale,  71  ;  reading  upon,  160; 

Oak,  leaves,   152;    phyllotaxy,   153; 

sinkers,  70;  suckers,  70;  twining, 

pollination,  95. 

70  ;    y  is  cum  album,  70. 

Oakesia,  leaf,  149. 

Parsley,  palmately  decompound  leaf, 

Obcordate  leaf,  29. 

28. 

Oblanceolate  leaf,  29. 

Parsnip,  umbel,  102. 

Oblong  leaf,  29. 

Parted,  leaf,  29. 

Obovate  leaf,  29. 

Partridge  Berry,  heterostyly,  171. 

Obtuse  leaf,  29. 

Pea,  butterfly  flower,  92  ;   calyx,  93  ; 

Odor,  of  flowers,  96.  " 

climbing,  66,  159  ;   cotyledons,  4  ; 

CEnothera,  adnation,  94  ;  flower,  94. 

flower,  91;  papilionaceous  flower, 

Onion,  bulblets,  77,78,  164;  caulicle, 

92  ;    pod,   116  ;    primary  root,  12  ; 

8,  15;  cotyledons,  8,  14;  embryo, 

root  hairs,  18;   seed,  4;   seedling, 

8;   endosperm,   8,  14;    hilum,  7; 

ii  ;  tendrils,  66;   vegetative  buds, 

micropyle,  7  ;   plumule,   15  ;   seed, 

49- 

7;  seed-coats,  8,  14;  seedling,  14, 

Peach,  drupe,  in,  112. 

146;    storage,    61,   62;     tunicated 

Pear,  leaf,  149  ;  phyllotaxy,  41. 

bulb,  62;   umbel,   102;   vegetative 

Pedicel,  definition,  102. 

reproduction,  77,  78. 

Peduncle,  definition,  101. 

Operculum  (plural  opercula),  Funa- 

Pelargonium,  dichogamy,  171;   leaf, 

ria,  127;  Moss,  127;  Polytrichum, 

149  ;  slips  or  cuttings,  79  ;  umbel, 

127. 

102. 

Opuntia,  vegetative  reproduction,  80. 

Peltate,  29. 

Orange,   hesperidium,   114;    protec- 

Pencils, 132. 

tion,    55,    156;    unifoliolate    com- 

Penknife, 133. 

pound  leaf,  37. 

Pepo,  Cucumber,  114;  Gourd,  114; 

Orbicular,  29. 

Melon,  114;  pulp,  115;  Pumpkin, 

Orchid,  aerial,  160;  aerial  roots,  69; 

114;  rind,  115;  seeds,  115. 

epiphyte,  68,  69,  160  ;  fertilization, 

Perennial,  58. 

92  ;  flower,  92  ;  nectar,  96.                |  Perfoliate,  leaf,  150. 

Order,  xiv. 

Perianth,  functions  of,  167. 

Ornithogalum,  storage,  158. 

1'eristome,  Funaria,  127;  Moss,  127; 

Oval,  29. 

Polytrichum,  127. 

Ovary,  cells  of,  83  ;  Crassula,  82. 

Peronospora,  reproduction,  180. 

Ovate,  29. 

Petal,  Bean,  91  ;  Crassula,  82;  Even- 

o 

I94 


INDEX   AND   SUMMARY 


ing    Primrose,    94  ;    Fuchsia,  94  ; 

seed,  8,  123,  143;  seed-coat,  8,  15; 

Locust,  91  ;    CEnothera,  94  ;    Pea, 

seedling,  15,  146. 

91  ;  Wistaria,  91. 

Pinus  Cembra,  P.  edulis,  P.  Lamber- 

Petiole,  26;    clasping,  66;  Clematis, 

tiana,  P.  Pinea,  P.  Saiiniaaa.seeds, 

66  ;  Darlingtonia,  74  ;  Five-Finger, 

144. 

28  ;  Japanese  Quince,  26  ;  Jasmine- 

Pistil,   coalescence,  94;    compound, 

flowered  Nightshade,  66;   Pitcher 

84,94;  Crassula,82;  Hyacinth,  94; 

Plant,  73  ;    Rose,  28  ;    Sarracenia 

Lily,  94;  simple,  84. 

purpurea,     73  ;      Strawberry,     28  ; 

Pitcher  Plant,  blade,  73  ;    insectivo- 

Sundew, 75  ;  Venus  Fly-trap,  74. 

rous,   73,    161  ;    leaf,   73  ;    petiole, 

Phloem,  Sunflower,  20. 

73- 

Phyllodium  (plural  phyllodia),  Aca- 

Pith, Butternut,   23;    Corn,   21,   22; 

cia,  34. 

Sunflower,  19  ;  Walnut,  23. 

Phyllotaxy,    Alder,    153;    American 

Pittosporum,  bud  scales,  48  ;  leaf,  26; 

Larch,  43  ;   Apple,  41  ;    Basswood, 

midrib,  26;  phyllotaxy,  41;   vena- 

153 ;    Bedstraw,  39  ;    Beech,   153  ; 

tion,  26. 

Begonia,  40;   Cleavers,  39;   Corn, 

Pittosporum  eugenioides,  buds,  155  ; 

153;    cyclical,  39,  40;    Day   Lily, 

leaf,  149. 

153  ;  Deodar,  45  ;    Elm,  153  ;   Eu- 

Placenta, Crassula,  83. 

calyptus,  44  ;    Forsythia,  45  ;   frac- 

Plantain,  dichogamy,   171  ;    pollina- 

tion representing,  41  ;  Fuchsia,  39, 

tion,  95  ;  spike,  103. 

152;    Galium,    39,    152;    Grasses, 

Plum,  drupe,  lii,  112. 

153  ;    Hazel,    153  ;     Hemerocallis, 

Plumule,  Bean,  3,  4;   Corn,  7,   14; 

153  ;  Holly,  41  ;   Iris,  153  ;   Larch, 

Onion,  15;  Pine,  15. 

45,   153;    Lily,  152;    Linden,  153; 

Poison  Hemlock,  umbel,  102. 

Maple,  43,  44;    Oak,  153;    oppo- 

Poisonous Plants,  protection,  57. 

site,  39,  40;   Pandanus,  44;   Pear, 

Pollen,    Crassula,    82;     descent    of 

41  ;  Pine,  42,  45  ;  Pittosporum,  41  ; 

pollen    tube,    88  ;     masses,     168  ; 

reading  upon,  152  ;  questions  upon, 

nucleus,   87  ;    protection    of;   172. 

45  ;  Salix  cordata,  153  ;  S.  discolor, 

Pollination,  agencies  for,  89  ;  by  in- 

153 ;     Salix    lucida,    153  ;    Screw 

sects,  89,  95  ;  by  wind,  89,  95  ;  Com- 

Pine,  44;    secondary  spirals,  42; 

positse,  170;    Corn,  169;  Cosmos, 

Sequoia  gigantea,   153  ;    series   of 

170;  cross,  89;  devices  for  secur- 

fractions, 42;   spiral,  40;   Spruce, 

ing  cross,  89  ;  Grass,  169  ;  reading 

42;    Sugar    Pine,    153;    Sumach, 

upon  insect  p.,  169  ;  reading  upon 

153  ;    Veratrum  viride,  41  ;    White 

self  p.,  173  ;  reading  upon  wind  p., 

Hellebore,  41,  153;  Willow,  153. 

169;    Salvia,    170;    self,   89,    100; 

Physalis,  seed  dispersal,  124. 

special  devices  for  securing  cross 

Phytomer,  25. 

p.,  97,  169;  Sunflower,  170. 

Pileus,  Mushroom,  128. 

Pollinia,  Asclepias,  168  ;  Orchid,  168. 

Pilose,  29. 

Polycotyledonous  embryo,  21. 

Pimpernel,  capsule,  118. 

Polygala,  cleistogamy,  173. 

Pine,  caulicle,  8,  15;  cone,  42;  coty- 

Polygala,  paucifolia,    P.   polygama, 

ledons,  8,  15  ;   embryo,   8  ;    endo- 

cleistogamous flowers,  100,  173. 

sperm,  8,  15;  kernel,  8;  leaves,  35  ; 

Polytrichum,  calyptra,  127  ;  capsule, 

longevity  of  leaves,  37  ;  micropyle, 

127;    operculum,  127;   peristome, 

8  ;  phyllotaxy,  42,  45;  plumule,  15  ; 

127;  plant,  127;  spores,  128. 

INDEX   AND    SUMMARY 


I9S 


Pome,  Apple,    113,  114;    core,    113, 

Purslane,  capsule,  118. 

114. 

Putamen  (plural  putamina),  drupe, 

Poppy,  capsule,  118,  177. 

112. 

Portulaca,  capsule,  118. 

Potato,  storage,  59,  158;  tuber,  60. 

Quince,  leaf,  149. 

Praefoliation,  51  ;  Azalea,  53  ;  Calla, 

53;  Cherry,  52;    circinate,53;  con- 

Raceme,    Currant,    101  ;    definition, 

duplicate,  52  ;   convolute,  53  ;  Cur- 

101 ;   Lily-of-the-  Valley,  101  ;  Red- 

rant,   52;     Dock,    53;    Fern,   53; 

hot-Poker  Plant,  101  ;  Zygadenus, 

involute,  53;  Japanese  Quince,  53  ; 

IOI. 

Lilac,  51  ;     Magnolia,  52  ;    Maple. 

Radish,  storage,  62,  157. 

52;     Material,    155;    plaited,  52; 

Ranks,  of  leaves,  39,  40,  41  ;    spiral, 

plane,  51  ;    plicate,  52  ;    questions 

40,  41  ;    two,  40  ;    vertical,  39,   40, 

upon,  54;  reading  upon,  155;  rec- 

41. 

linate,    52;     revolute,    53;     Tulip 

Raspberry,  protection,   56  ;   suckers, 

Tree,  52  ;   Violet,  53. 

78  ;  vegetative  reproduction,  78. 

Prickly  Pear,  joints,  80;    vegetative 

Reading,  139. 

reproduction,  80. 

Receptacle,  Crassula,  84. 

Primrose,  heterostyly,  99,  171. 

Red  Clover,  head,  103. 

Prince's  Feather,  flower,  91. 

Red-hot-  Poker  Plant,  raceme,  101. 

Barberry,  55,  156;  Beechnut,  122; 

Rrniform,  29. 

Berbtris  vulgaris,  156  ;  Blackberry, 

Reproduction,    definition,    76,    163; 

56  ;  Brambles,  56,  157  ;  Buttercup, 

See  also  seed  reproduction,  spore 

56;    Chestnut,    122;    Chinquapin, 

reproduction,  and  vegetative  repro- 

122; Cockspur  Thorn,  156  ;  Cratae- 

duction. 

gus,   156  ;    Currant,   55  ;    Datura, 

Retuse,  29. 

122;  Eschscholtzia,  56;  Euphorbia 

Reviews,  141. 

splendent,  156;  fruits,  122;  Goose- 

Rhaphe,   143;    Bean,  2,  4;    Castor 

berry,  55  ;  Hawthorn,  156  ;  Lemon, 

Bean,  4. 

156;    Locust,  56;    Mayweed,  56; 

Rhododendron,  capsule,  117;  leaves, 

Mullein,  57;    Nettle,  57;    Orange, 

152- 

55.  J56  1  poisonous  plants,  57  ;  pol- 

Rind, of  Corn  stem,  22. 

len,  172  ;    Raspberry,  56  ;    reading 

Rings  of  wood,  Butternut,  23  ;  Wal- 

upon, 156;    Robinia  Pseudacacia, 

nut,  23. 

156  ;  Rose,  56,  157  ;  Scarlet  Thorn, 

Robinia     Pseudacacia,     protection, 

156;  Spiny  Acacia,  56,  156  ;  Thim- 

156. 

bleberry,  56  ;  Thistle,  56  ;  Thorn, 

Root,  adventitious,  14,  18,    146;    as 

55  ;    Thorn   Apple,   122  ;     Worm- 

suckers, 70;   aerial,  69;  Bean,  12, 

wood,  56  ;  Xantliium  spinosum,  156. 

17;   Corn,  14,  18  ;  hairs,  18,  147; 

Proterandry,  definition,  98. 

Mistletoe,   69;    multiple   primary, 

Proterogyny,  definition,  98. 

17;  Pea,  ii  ;  primary,  n,  12,  14; 

Pubescent  leaf,  29. 

questions  upon,  18  ;  reading  upon, 

Puccinia,  reproduction,  180. 

146;  secondary,  17,  146;   Squash, 

Pulque,  59. 

17;  tap,  17;  tertiary,  17. 

Pumpkin,  pepo,  114. 

Root  hairs,  Bean,  18;  Corn.iS;  Pea, 

Purple  Loosestrife,  heterostyly,  99,  172. 

18. 

I96 


INDEX   AND    SUMMARY 


Rootlets,  aerial,  67  ;  English  Ivy,  67. 

table,  9  ;    Trumpet   Creeper,  123  ; 

Rose,  anthotaxy,  105  ;  climbing,  157  ; 

winged,  123;    with  tufts  of  hairs, 

defoliation,  38;  green  flowers,  107, 

124;  Yam,  123. 

107  ;  hip,  176  ;  leaflets,  28  ;  petiole, 

Seed-coats,  Bean,  2,  4  ;  Castor  Bean, 

28  ;  pinnately  compound  leaf,  28  ; 

S  ;  Cocoanut,  125  ;  Corn,  6  ;  Morn- 

protection, 56,  157;  stipules,  28. 

ing  Glory,  6;  Onion,  8,  14;  Pine, 

Rugose,  29. 

8. 

Rye,  pollination,  95. 

Seed  dispersal,  by  animals,  in,  121; 

by  water,  125  ;  by  wind,  123  ;  read- 

Sagittate, 29. 

ing  upon,  177,  178. 

Salix  cordata,  S.  discolor,  S.  lucida, 

Seed-leaves.    See  Cotyledons. 

phyllotaxy,  153. 

Seedlings,  Bean,  n;    Castor   Bean, 

Salvia,  pollination,  170. 

13;  Corn,  n,  13;  Onion,  14;  Pea, 

Samara,  Ailanthus,  123  ;    Ash,  123  ; 

ii  ;  Pine,  15;  Squash,  17. 

Elm,  123;  Maple,  123. 

Seedlings,  Bean,  11,  12,  144;  Castor 

Saprophytes,  68;    Bread  Mould,  71, 

Bean,  13,  145;  Corn,  13,  14,  145; 

161  ;  Corallorhiza,  161  ;  Coral  Root, 

Morning   Glory,   145  ;    Onion,   14, 

161  ;  Indian  Pipe,  161  ;  Monotropa, 

15,  145,  146;    Pea,  ii,  144;   Pine, 

161  ;  reading  upon,  160. 

15,  145,  146;  questions  upon,  16; 

Sarcocarp,  drupe,  112. 

reading  upon,  144  ;  Squash,  146. 

Sarracenia  purpurea,  blade,  73  ;   in- 

Seed reproduction,  definition,  76,81; 

sectivorous,  73,  161  ;  leaf,  73  ;  peti- 

reading upon,  164. 

ole,  73. 

Self-pollination,  100;  reading  upon, 

Scabrous,  29. 

173- 

Scalpel,  133. 

Sensitive  Plant,  leaves,  36. 

Scaly,  buds,  47. 

Sepals,  coalescence  of,  93  ;  Crassula, 

Scarlet  Thorn,  protection,  156. 

82. 

Scion,  71. 

Septicidal   dehiscence,  Azalea,  117  ; 

Scoliopus  Bigtlovii,  leaf,  149. 

Chelone,  117  ;  Rhododendron,  117  ; 

Screw  Pine,  phyllotaxy,  44. 

St.  John's  Wort,  117  ;  Turtle  Head, 

Scrophularia,  dichogamy,  98. 

117. 

Scrophularia   Californica,  S.  nodosa, 

Septifragal      dehiscence,      Morning 

dichogamy,  170. 

Glory,  117. 

Sedge,  seed  dispersal,  125. 

Septum  (plural  septa),  capsule,  117, 

Sedum,  flower,  165. 

118. 

Seed,  Bean,  i,  143  ;  Butter-and-Eggs, 

Sequoia  gigantea,  phyilotaxy,  153. 

123  ;  Castor  Bean,  4  ;  Catalpa,  123  ; 

Sericeous  leaf,  29. 

Corn,  6;  Cotton,  124;  Cypress,  123; 

Serrate  leaf,  29. 

Day    Lily,   123;    Dioscorea,   123; 

Serrulate  leaf,  29. 

dispersal,   109;    essentials    of,  81, 

Sessile,  definition,  103  ;  flowers,  103. 

128;    Funkia,   123;    Linaria,   123; 

Shrub,  22. 

Milkweed,  124;  Morning  Glory,  5  ; 

Silver  Maple,  buds,  154. 

Pea,  4  ;  Pine,  8,  123  ;  Pinus  Cembra, 

Sleep,  of  plants,  Oxalis,  36. 

P.  edulis,  P.  Lambertiana,  P.  Pinea, 

Smilax,  cladophylla,  36,  151  ;  leaves, 

and  P.  Sabiniana,  144;   questions 

36,  151- 

upon,  10  ;  reading  upon,  142  ;  re- 

Smilax herbacea,  flower,  96. 

production  by,  76,  81  ;  storage,  62  ; 

Smooth,  29. 

INDEX  AND   SUMMARY 


197 


Soap-Root,  storage,  62. 

Soft  bast,  Sunflower,  20;  Walnut,  23. 
See  also  Phloem. 

Solatium  Jasminoides,  clasping  peti- 
oles, 66;  climbing,  66,  159. 

Solidago,  leaves,  150. 

Solomon's  Seal,  storage,  158. 

Sorus  (plural  sori),  Fern,  126. 

Spadix,  Anthurium,  103 ;  Calla,  103. 

Spathe,  Anthurium,  103  ;  Calla,  103. 

Spatulate,  29. 

Species,  xiii. 

Spike,  Plantain,  103. 

Spiny  Acacia,  protection,  56,  156. 

Spirogyra,  reproduction,  180. 

Sporangia,  Bread  Mould,  71 ;  Fern, 
127. 

Spores,  Bread  Mould, 71;  characters 
of,  128;  Fern,  127;  kinds  of,  179; 
Moss,  127;  Mushroom,  127;  re- 
production by,  126. 

Spur,  Larkspur,  92 ;  Pansy,  93 ;  Vio- 
let,  93- 

Squash,  climbing,  65;  multiple  pri- 
mary roots,  17 ;  seedling,  17,  146. 

Stamens,  Barberry,  97;  Calico  Bush, 
97;  Crassula,  82;  diadelphous, 
93 ;  Kalmia,  97 ;  monadelphous, 

93- 

Standard,  Bean,  91 ;  Locust,  91 ;  Pea, 
91 ;  Wistaria,  91. 

Staphylea,  seed  dispersal,  124. 

Star-of- Bethlehem,  storage,  62,  158. 

Stem,  Basswood,  148  ;  branching, 79 ; 
Butternut,  22,  23 ;  Buttonball,  148  ; 
Corn,  21,  148;  Cosmos,  147,  148; 
endogenous,  22 ;  exogenous,  21 ; 
functions  of,  24 ;  Linden,  148 ; 
Mistletoe,  69 ;  questions  upon,  24 ; 
reading  upon,  147  ;  Sunflower, 
19,  148 ;  Sycamore,  148 ;  under- 
ground, 79 ;  Walnut,  22,  23.  ' 

Stigma,  Begonia,  83;  Crassula,  82; 
Lily,  83;  Mimulus,  97;  Monkey 
Flower,  97  ;  Torenia,  97. 

Stipe,  Mushroom,  128. 

Stipules,  26:   Five-Finger,  28;  Japa- 


nese Quince,  26;  Lathyrus  Aphaca, 
35 ;  Rose,  28 ;  Strawberry,  28. 

St.  John's  Wort,  capsule,  117. 

Stomata,  Calla  Lily,  30. 

Storage,  58 ;  advantages  of,  63 ; 
Agave,  59,  157 ;  Aloe,  157 ;  Beet, 
62,  157  ;  Bermuda  Lily,  158  ;  Bro- 
diaea,  158  ;  Cactus,  58,  157  ;  Car- 
rot, 62,  157 ;  Century  Plant,  59 ; 
corm,6o;  Crocus,  158;  Dog-tooth 
Violet,  62  ;  Easter  Lily,  158  ;  Gladi- 
olus, 60,  158;  Hyacinth,  61,  62; 
Indian  Turnip,  158;  in  seed,  62; 
in  trees,  63;  Iris,  59;  Jack-in-the- 
Pulpit,  158  ;  Jerusalem  Artichoke, 
158;  Lilium  auratum,  158;  Lily, 
60 ;  Live-for-ever,  157  ;  materials, 
58;  Onion,  61,  62;  Ornithogalum, 
158;  Potato,  59,  157;  Radish,  62, 
157;  reading  upon,  157;  scaly  bulb, 
61 ;  Soap-Root,  62  ;  solid  bulb,  60; 
Solomon's  Seal,  158;  Star-of-Beth- 
lehem,  62,  158;  tuber,  60;  Tube- 
rose, 62 ;  Tulip,  62 ;  tunicated 
bulb,  62. 

Strawberry,  fruit,  176 ;  leaf,  28 ;  leaf- 
lets, 28 ;  petiole,  28 ;  runners,  78 ; 
stipules,  28 ;  vegetative  reproduc- 
tion, 78. 

Strophiole,  Bean,  i,  4,  143. 

Struggle-for-existence,  xii. 

Style,  Crassula,  82. 

Suckers,  Viscum  album,  70. 

Suffrutescent,  22. 

Suffruticose,  22. 

Sugar  Pine,  phyllotaxy,  153. 

Sumach,  phyllotaxy,  153. 

Sundew,  blade,  75 ;  glands,  75  ;  in- 
sectivorous, 75;  leaf,  75;  petiole,  75. 

Sunflower,  cambium,  20 ;  cortex,  19 ; 
epidermis,  20;  hard  bast,  20;  in- 
ternodes,  19 ;  nodes,  19 ;  outer  bark, 
19;  phloem,  20;  pith,  19;  soft  bast, 
20;  stem,  19,148;  vascular  bundle, 
19,  20,  21 ;  vegetative  buds,  49 ; 
xylem,  20. 

Swamp  Loosestrife,  heterostyly,  99. 


INDEX  AND   SUMMARY 


Sweet  Potato,  adventitious  buds,  49. 

Umbel  let,  Caraway  Seed,  102  ;  Car- 

Sweet-scented Shrub,  flower,  107. 

rot,  102  ;  definition,  102  ;  Fennel, 

Sycamore,  stem,  148. 

102;  Parsnip,  102;   Poison  Hem- 

Synsepalous, calyx,  93. 

lock,  102. 

Undulate,  29. 

Tap  root,  Bean,  17;  definition,  17. 

Unsymmetrical,  flower,  92. 

Taraxacum,  seed  dispersal,  124. 

Uredo,  reproduction,  180. 

Teazle,  leaves,  150. 

Utricularia,  insectivorous,  162. 

Tegmen,  Castor  Bean,  5,  13. 

Uvularia  perfoliata,  leaf,  33. 

Tendrils,     Lathyrus     Aphaca,     35  ; 

Grape  Vine,  159  ;  Pea,  66  ;  Squash, 

Valve,  of  pod,  116. 

65- 

Vascular  bundle,  Corn,  21,  22  ;  Sun- 

Terminal bud,  46. 

flower,  19,  20,  21. 

Testa,  Castor  Bean,  5,  13. 

Vaucheria,  reproduction,  180. 

Thimbleberry,  protection,  56. 

Vegetative    reproduction,     Begonia, 

Thistle,  protection,  56  ;  seed  disper- 

79 ;    budding,   80  ;    Bryophyllum, 

sal,  124. 

79  ;  by  bulblets,  77,  78  ;  by  cuttings, 

Thorn,  protection,  55. 

79  ;  by  runners,  78  ;   by  suckers, 

Thorn  Apple,  protection,  122. 

78;  Calochortus,  164;  Cicuta  bul- 

Tiger  Lily,  bulblets,  77  ;    vegetative 

bifera,  164  ;    definition,  77  ;    Dio- 

reproduction,  77,  164. 

scorea,   164  ;    grafting,   80  ;   grass, 

Timothy,  pollination,  95, 

79  ;    in  underground  stems,   79  ; 

Tomato,  berry,  113. 

Iris,  79  ;    Lilium  tigrinum,  164  ; 

Tomentose,  29. 

Mariposa    Lily,   164  ;    Mint,  79  ; 

Torenia,  stigma,  97. 

Onion,  77,  78,  164  ;  Opuntia,  80  ; 

Torsion,  of  internodes,  44. 

Pelargonium,    79  ;    Prickly    Pear, 

Trees,  22. 

80;  Raspberry,  78  ;  reading  upon, 

Trillium,  green  flowers,  107. 

164;   Strawberry,  78;    Tiger   Lily, 

Trillium  erectum,  flower,  96. 

77,164;  Willow,  79;  Yam,  78. 

Trimorphism,  heterogonous,  171. 

Venation,  English  Ivy,  27;  .Japanese 

Troximon,  seed  dispersal,  124. 

Quince,  26  ;    Mock   Orange,  26  ; 

Trumpet  Creeper,  winged  seeds,  123. 

netted,    26  ;    parallel,    27  ;    Pitto- 

Truncate,  29. 

sporum,  26. 

Tuber,    Jerusalem  Artichoke,   157  ; 

Venus  Fly-trap,  bristles,  75  ;    insec- 

Potato, 60. 

tivorous,  74,  75,  162;  leaf,  74,  75. 

Tuberose,  storage,  62. 

Veratrum  •viride,  phyllotaxy,  41. 

Tulip  Tree,  bud  scales,  48  ;  prafolia- 

Verbena,  head,  103. 

tion,  52. 

Vernation,  51. 

Tumble  Weeds,  seed  dispersal,  124. 

Violet,  cleistogamy,  173  ;  flower,  92  ; 

Turtle  Head,  capsule,  117. 

praefoliation,  53  ;  pod,  116  ;  spur,92. 

Twisting,  of  internodes,  44. 

Virginia  Creeper,  climbing,  159. 

Virgin's  Bower,  clasping  petioles,  66  ; 

Umbel,  Caraway  Seed,  102  ;  Carrot, 

climbing,  66. 

102  ;    compound,    102  ;     Fennel, 

Viscum  album,  suckers,  70, 

102;    Onion,    102;    Parsnip,   102; 

Pelargonium,   102;    Poison  Hem- 

Walnut,  buds,  46;   bud  scales,  48; 

lock,  102. 

cambium,   23  ;    cork,   23  ;    cortex, 

INDEX   AND   SUMMARY 


199 


23 ;  hard  bast,  23  ;  internodes,  22 ;  ' 
medullary  rays,  23;  nodes,  22; 
pith,  23;  pollination,  95  ;  rings,  23  ; 
soft  bast,  23 ;  stem,  22 ;  xylem,  23. 

Water  Lily,  flower,  107  ;  seed  dis- 
persal, 125. 

White  Hellebore,  phyllotaxy,  41. 

Whorl,  of  cotyledons,  8 ;  of  leaves, 
40. 

Willow,  cuttings,  79;  defoliation,  38  ; 
longevity  of  leaf,  37  ;  phyllotaxy, 
153- 

Willow-herb,  dichogamy,  171. 

Wind-pollinated  flowers,  Alder,  95; 
Birch,  95;  Butternut,  95;  charac- 
teristics of,  95  ;  Corn,  95  ;  Grasses, 
95 ;  Hickory  Nut,  95  ;  Nettle,  95 ; 


Oak,  95;   Oat,  95;   Plantain,  95; 

Rye,  95  ;  Timothy,  95  ;  Walnut,  95. 
Wistaria,  flower,  91 ;  pods,  116. 
Witch  Hazel,  buds,  48. 
Wormwood,  protection,  56. 

Xanthium,  seed  dispersal,  121. 
Xanthium  spinosum,  protection,  156. 
Xenogamy,  167. 

Xylem,  Butternut,  23 ;  Sunflower,  20 ; 
Walnut,  23. 

Yam,  bulblets,  78  ;  climbing,  159  ; 
seed  dispersal,  123 ;  vegetative  re- 
production, 78. 

Zygadenus,  raceme,  101. 


,  i 


ELEMENTARY  ALGEBRA 

For  the  Use  of  Preparatory  Schools. 
By  CHARLES  SMITH,  M.A., 

Author  ef  "A  Treatise  on  Algebra"  "An  Elementary  Treatise  on 
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REVISED  AND  ADAPTED  TO  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS   BY 

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